Life Cycle Models (Lecture 2)
1. Classical waterfall model
2. Iterative waterfall Model
3. V Model
4. Prototype Model
5. Evolunaray Model
6. Incremental Model
7. Spiral Model
8. RAD Model
9. Agile Model
1
1. Classical Waterfall
Model
●
Classical waterfall model divides life
cycle into phases:
– feasibility study,
– requirements analysis and specification,
– design,
– coding and unit testing,
– integration and system testing,
– maintenance.
2
Classical Waterfall
Model
Feasibility Study
Req. Analysis
Design
Coding
Testing
Maintenance
3
Relative Effort for
Phases
●
Phases between feasibility
study and testing 60
– known as development phases.
50
Relative Effort
●
Among all life cycle phases 40
– maintenance phase consumes
maximum effort. 30
20
●
Among development phases,
– testing phase consumes the
10
Maintnce
Design
maximum effort.
Req. Sp
0
Coding
Test
4
Classical Waterfall
Model (CONT.)
●
Most organizations usually define:
– standards on the outputs (deliverables)
produced at the end of every phase
– entry and exit criteria for every phase.
●
They also prescribe specific methodologies
for:
– specification,
– design,
– testing,
– project management, etc.
5
Classical Waterfall
Model (CONT.)
●
The guidelines and methodologies of an
organization:
– called the organization's software
development methodology.
●
Software development organizations:
– expect fresh engineers to master the
organization's software development
methodology.
6
Feasibility Study
●
Main aim of feasibility study:determine whether
developing the product
– financially worthwhile
– technically feasible.
●
First roughly understand what the customer wants:
– different data which would be input to the system,
– processing needed on these data,
– output data to be produced by the system,
– various constraints on the behavior of the system.
7
Activities during
Feasibility Study
●
Work out an overall understanding of
the problem.
●
Formulate different solution strategies.
●
Examine alternate solution strategies in
terms of:
●
resources required,
●
cost of development, and
●
development time.
8
Activities during
Feasibility Study
●
Perform a cost/benefit analysis:
– to determine which solution is the best.
– you may determine that none of the
solutions is feasible due to:
●
high cost,
●
resource constraints,
●
technical reasons.
9
Requirements Analysis
and Specification
●
Aim of this phase:
– understand the exact requirements of
the customer,
– document them properly.
●
Consists of two distinct activities:
– requirements gathering and analysis
– requirements specification.
10
Goals of Requirements
Analysis
●
Collect all related data from the
customer:
– analyze the collected data to clearly
understand what the customer wants,
– find out any inconsistencies and
incompleteness in the requirements,
– resolve all inconsistencies and
incompleteness.
11
Requirements Gathering
●
Gathering relevant data:
– usually collected from the end-users
through interviews and discussions.
– For example, for a business
accounting software:
●
interview all the accountants of the
organization to find out their
requirements.
12
Requirements Analysis (CONT.)
●
The data you initially collect
from the users:
– wouldusually contain several
contradictions and ambiguities:
– each user typically has only a
partial and incomplete view of
the system.
13
Requirements Analysis (CONT.)
●
Ambiguities and contradictions:
– must be identified
– resolved by discussions with the
customers.
●
Next, requirements are organized:
– into a Software Requirements Specification
(SRS) document.
14
Requirements Analysis (CONT.)
●
Engineers doing
requirements analysis and
specification:
– are designated as analysts.
15
Design
●
Design phase transforms
requirements specification:
– into a form suitable for
implementation in some
programming language.
16
Design
●
In technical terms:
– during design phase, software
architecture is derived from the
SRS document.
●
Two design approaches:
– traditional approach,
– object oriented approach.
17
Traditional Design
Approach
●
Consists of two
activities:
– Structured analysis
– Structured design
18
Structured Analysis
Activity
●
Identify all the functions to be
performed.
●
Identify data flow among the functions.
●
Decompose each function recursively
into sub-functions.
– Identify data flow among the subfunctions
as well.
19
Structured Analysis (CONT.)
●
Carried out using Data flow
diagrams (DFDs).
●
After structured analysis, carry out
structured design:
– architectural design (or high-level
design)
– detailed design (or low-level design).
20
Structured Design
●
High-level design:
– decompose the system into modules,
– represent invocation relationships among
the modules.
●
Detailed design:
– different modules designed in greater
detail:
●
data structures and algorithms for each module
are designed.
21
Object Oriented Design
●
First identify various objects (real world
entities) occurring in the problem:
– identify the relationships among the objects.
– For example, the objects in a pay-roll
software may be:
●
employees,
●
managers,
●
pay-roll register,
●
Departments, etc.
22
Object Oriented Design
(CONT.)
●
Object structure
– further refined to obtain the detailed
design.
●
OOD has several advantages:
– lower development effort,
– lower development time,
– better maintainability.
23
Implementation
●
Purpose of implementation
phase (aka coding and unit
testing phase):
– translate
software design into
source code.
24
Implementation
●
During the implementation phase:
– each module of the design is coded,
– each module is unit tested
●
tested independently as a stand alone
unit, and debugged,
– each module is documented.
25
Implementation (CONT.)
●
The purpose of unit testing:
– test if individual modules work
correctly.
●
The end product of implementation
phase:
– a set of program modules that have
been tested individually.
26
Integration and System
Testing
●
Different modules are integrated in a
planned manner:
– modules are almost never integrated in
one shot.
– Normally integration is carried out through
a number of steps.
●
During each integration step,
– the partially integrated system is tested.
27
System Testing
●
After all the modules have been
successfully integrated and tested:
– system testing is carried out.
●
Goal of system testing:
– ensure that the developed system
functions according to its
requirements as specified in the SRS
document.
28
Maintenance
●
Maintenance of any software
product:
– requiresmuch more effort
than the effort to develop the
product itself.
– development effort to
maintenance effort is
typically 40:60.
29
Maintenance (CONT.)
●
Corrective maintenance:
– Correct errors which were not discovered during the
product development phases.
●
Perfective maintenance:
– Improve implementation of the system
– enhance functionalities of the system.
●
Adaptive maintenance:
– Port software to a new environment,
●
e.g. to a new computer or to a new operating system.
30
2. Iterative Waterfall
Model
●
Classical waterfall model is
idealistic:
– assumes that no defect is introduced
during any development activity.
– in practice:
●
defects do get introduced in almost
every phase of the life cycle.
31
Iterative Waterfall
Model (CONT.)
●
Defects usually get detected
much later in the life cycle:
– Forexample, a design defect
might go unnoticed till the
coding or testing phase.
32
Iterative Waterfall
Model (CONT.)
●
Once a defect is detected:
– we need to go back to the phase where it
was introduced
– redo some of the work done during that
and all subsequent phases.
●
Therefore we need feedback paths in
the classical waterfall model.
33
Iterative Waterfall
Model (CONT.)
Feasibility Study
Req. Analysis
Design
Coding
Testing
Maintenance
34
Iterative Waterfall
Model (CONT.)
●
Errors should be detected
in the same phase in which they are
introduced.
●
For example:
if a design problem is detected in the
design phase itself,
the problem can be taken care of much
more easily
than say if it is identified at the end of
the integration and system testing
phase.
35
Phase containment of
errors
●
Reason: rework must be carried out not only
to the design but also to code and test
phases.
●
The principle of detecting errors as close to
its point of introduction as possible:
– is known as phase containment of errors.
●
Iterative waterfall model is by far the most
widely used model.
– Almost every other model is derived from the
waterfall model.
36
3. V MODEL
●
V-model is a variant of the waterfall
model.
●
In this model verification and validation
activities are carried out throughout the
development life cycle, and therefore the
chances bugs in the work products
considerably reduce.
●
This model is therefore generally
considered to be suitable for use in
projects concerned with development of
safety-critical software that are required
to have high reliability. 37
V MODEL activites: 1. Development
2. Validation
38
●
In each development phase, along with
the development of a work product,
test case design and the plan for
testing the work product are carried
out, whereas the actual testing is
carried out in the validation phase.
●
In the validation phase, testing is
carried out in three steps—unit,
integration, and system testing.
39
4. Prototyping Model
●
Before starting actual development,
– a working prototype of the system should
first be built.
●
A prototype is a toy implementation of
a system:
– limited functional capabilities,
– low reliability,
– inefficient performance.
40
Reasons for developing a
prototype
●
Illustrate to the customer:
– input data formats, messages,
reports, or interactive dialogs.
●
Examine technical issues
associated with product
development:
– Often major design decisions
depend on issues like:
●
response time of a hardware controller,
●
efficiency of a sorting algorithm, etc.
41
Prototyping Model (CONT.)
●
The third reason for developing a
prototype is:
– it is impossible to ``get it right'' the
first time,
– we must plan to throw away the first
product
●
if we want to develop a good product.
42
Prototyping Model (CONT.)
●
Start with approximate requirements.
●
Carry out a quick design.
●
Prototype model is built using several
short-cuts:
– Short-cuts might involve using
inefficient, inaccurate, or dummy
functions.
●
A function may use a table look-up rather
than performing the actual computations.
43
Prototyping Model (CONT.)
●
The developed prototype is submitted
to the customer for his evaluation:
– Based on the user feedback,
requirements are refined.
– This cycle continues until the user
approves the prototype.
●
The actual system is developed using
the classical waterfall approach.
44
Prototyping Model (CONT.)
●
Requirements analysis and specification phase
becomes redundant:
– final working prototype (with all user feedbacks
incorporated) serves as an animated requirements
specification.
●
Design and code for the prototype is usually
thrown away:
– However, the experience gathered from developing
the prototype helps a great deal while developing the
actual product.
45
Prototyping model
46
Prototyping Model (CONT.)
●
Even though construction of a working
prototype model involves additional cost ---
overall development cost might be lower for:
– systems with unclear user requirements,
– systems with unresolved technical issues.
●
Many user requirements get properly defined
and technical issues get resolved:
– these would have appeared later as change
requests and resulted in incurring massive
redesign costs.
47
5. Evolutionary Model
●
Evolutionary model (aka successive versions
or incremental model):
– The system is broken down into several modules
which can be incrementally implemented and
delivered.
●
First develop the core modules of the system.
●
The initial product skeleton is refined into
increasing levels of capability:
– by adding new functionalities in successive
versions.
48
Evolutionary Model (CONT.)
●
Successive version of the product:
– functioning systems capable of
performing some useful work.
– A new release may include new
functionality:
●
also existing functionality in the current
release might have been enhanced.
49
Evolutionary Model (CONT.)
50
Advantages of
Evolutionary Model
●
Users get a chance to experiment with a
partially developed system:
– much before the full working version is released,
●
Helps finding exact user requirements:
– much before fully working system is developed.
●
Core modules get tested thoroughly:
– reduces chances of errors in final product.
51
Disadvantages of
Evolutionary Model
●
Often, difficult to subdivide
problems into functional units:
– which can be incrementally
implemented and delivered.
– evolutionary model is useful for very
large problems,
●
where it is easier to find modules for
incremental implementation.
52
Evolutionary Model with
Iteration
●
Many organizations use a
combination of iterative and
incremental development:
– a new release may include new
functionality
– existing functionality from the current
release may also have been modified.
53
Evolutionary Model with
iteration
●
Several advantages:
– Training can start on an earlier release
●
customer feedback taken into account
– Markets can be created:
●
for functionality that has never been offered.
– Frequent releases allow developers to fix
unanticipated problems quickly.
54
6. Incremental model
●
This life cycle model is sometimes referred
to as the successive versions model and
sometimes as the incremental model.
●
In this life cycle model, first a simple
working system implementing only a few
basic features is built and delivered to the
customer.
●
Over many successive iterations
successive versions are implemented and
delivered to the customer until the desired
system is realised.
55
Incremental model
56
Incremental model of software
development
57
7. Spiral Model
●
Proposed by Boehm in 1988.
●
Each loop of the spiral represents a phase of
the software process:
– the innermost loop might be concerned with
system feasibility,
– the next loop with system requirements definition,
– the next one with system design, and so on.
●
There are no fixed phases in this model, the
phases shown in the figure are just
examples.
58
Spiral Model (CONT.)
●
The team must decide:
– how to structure the project into phases.
●
Start work using some generic model:
– add extra phases
●
for specific projects or when problems are
identified during a project.
●
Each loop in the spiral is split into four
sectors (quadrants).
59
Spiral model of s/w
development
60
Objective Setting (First
Quadrant)
●
Identify objectives of the phase,
●
Examine the risks associated with these
objectives.
– Risk:
●
any adverse circumstance that might
hamper successful completion of a
software project.
●
Find alternate solutions possible.
61
Risk Assessment and Reduction
(Second Quadrant)
●
For each identified project risk,
– a detailed analysis is carried out.
●
Steps are taken to reduce the risk.
●
For example, if there is a risk that the
requirements are inappropriate:
– a prototype system may be developed.
62
Spiral Model (CONT.)
●
Development and Validation (Third
quadrant):
quadrant
– develop and validate the next level of the
product.
●
Review and Planning (Fourth quadrant):
quadrant
– review the results achieved so far with the
customer and plan the next iteration around the
spiral.
●
With each iteration around the spiral:
– progressively more complete version of the
software gets built.
63
Spiral Model as a meta
model
●
Subsumes all discussed models:
– a single loop spiral represents waterfall
model.
– uses an evolutionary approach --
●
iterations through the spiral are evolutionary levels.
– enables understanding and reacting to risks
during each iteration along the spiral.
– uses:
●
prototyping as a risk reduction mechanism
●
retains the step-wise approach of the waterfall
model.
64
Comparison of Different Life
Cycle Models
●
Iterative waterfall model
– most widely used model.
– But, suitable only for well-understood
problems.
●
Prototype model is suitable for projects
not well understood:
– user requirements
– technical aspects
65
Comparison of Different Life
Cycle Models (CONT.)
●
Evolutionary model is suitable for large
problems:
– can be decomposed into a set of
modules that can be incrementally
implemented,
– incremental delivery of the system is
acceptable to the customer.
●
The spiral model:
– suitable for development of technically
challenging software products that are
subject to several kinds of risks.
66
8. RAD MODEL
●
The rapid application development
(RAD) model was proposed in the
early nineties in an attempt to
overcome the rigidity of the waterfall
model.
●
It proposed a few radical extensions
to the waterfall model.
●
This model has the features of both
prototyping and evolutionary
models. It deploys an evolutionary
delivery model to obtain and
incorporate the customer feedbacks
on incrementally delivered versions. 67
The major goals of the RAD model are as
follows:
●
To decrease the time taken and the cost
incurred to develop software systems.
●
To limit the costs of accommodating
change requests.
●
T o reduce the communication gap
between the customer and the
developers.
68
9. Agile model
●
Agile model emphasise face-to-face
communication over written documents.
●
It is recommended that the development
team size be deliberately kept small (5–9
people) to help the team members
meaningfully engage in face-to-face
communication and have collaborative work
environment.
●
It is implicit then that the agile model is
suited to the development of small projects.
69
The following important principles
behind the agile model were
publicised in the agile manifesto in
2001:
●
Working software over comprehensive
documentation.
●
Frequent delivery of incremental versions of the
software to the customer in intervals of few
weeks.
●
Requirement change requests from the customer
are encouraged and are efficiently incorporated.
●
Having competent team members and enhancing
interactions among them is considered much
more important than issues such as usage of
sophisticated tools or strict adherence to a
documented process.
●
Continuous interaction with the customer is
70
considered much more important rather than
