Session two

Fundamental Concepts of GIS

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 Session Objectives
 At the end of the session, Participants will be
able to:
 Understand the structure and importance of
different spatial data structures in GIS

 Apply different GIS techniques in creation of

topological data

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 Structure of Geographic Data
 Geographic data come from a variety of sources:
 Digitized maps
 Analog Maps
 Aerial photography
 Point data from GPS
 Point Data from Ground Surveying
 Textual or Tabular data
 Appropriate structure is essential for GIS
success/fail
 GIS utilizes two primary data models:
 Raster data model

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 Vector data model
 Structure of Geographic Data…
 Raster Data Models: Raster data structures
characterize continuous data
 Boundaries and point information are not well defined
 Raster data provide data as a pixel grid/cell

 Vector Data Models: Vector data structures

characterize discrete data
 Distinct boundaries and point information are well defined
 Constructed on ordered two- and three-dimensional coordinates
 Features are represented as geometric shapes
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 Structure of Geographic Data…
 Vector vs. Raster data representation

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 Vector and Raster Feature
Geometries
 Three primary types of feature geometries: Point, Line, Polygon

Vector Raster

Point
Line

Polyline

Polygon

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 Definition of raster and
source of raster data

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 Definition of Raster

 Raster - A format for storing, processing, and

displaying graphic data in which graphic
images are stored as values for uniform grid
cells or pixels.
 Pixels - Abbreviation for picture element, the
smallest indivisible element that makes up an
image. In raster processing, data is
represented spatially on a matrix of grid cells,
called pixels, which are assigned values for
image characteristics or attributes.

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 5.2.2 Generic structure for a grid

Grid extent

Grid
cell
Rows

Resolution
Columns

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 Generic structure for a grid cont..

 One grid cell is one unit or holds one attribute.

 Every cell has a value, even if it is “missing.”
 A cell has a resolution, given as the cell size in ground
units.
 Raster Data Model
 Rows and Columns of Cells (Array)
 Area of Cell equals Spatial Resolution
 Cells are considered Homogeneous Units

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 Sources of Raster Data

From where do we get Raster Data?

Scanned Maps
Satellite Images
 Aerial Photos
Examples
Satellite data
 LANDSAT
 SPOT
 Quick bird
 Ikonos
Scanned aerial photography
Digital Orthophotography
Scanned maps
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 Raster Data Sources

Air Photos

Satellite
Imagery

Scanned Maps
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 Some Common Image Formats

 JPG – Used for most digital photos but “lossy.”

 GIF – Best for line drawings. 256 colors maximum. No
loss
 TIFF – Standard in many technical applications. No
loss
 PNG – Lossless image format
 RAW – Data as captured by digital camera
 IMG- Image format

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Raster (Field Based) Model
 Advantages:
 Simple data structure
 Simple implementation of overlays
 Efficient for image processing

 Disadvantages:
 Less compact data structure
 Difficult to represent topology
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 Definition of VECTOR
and source of VECTOR
data

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 Vector GIS

A GIS in which graphic data is stored in

the form of discrete points, lines, or
polygons.

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 Sources of Vector Data

 RASTER-VECTOR conversions from

scanned images
 DIGITIZING

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 Structure of Vector Data
 There is a relationship between vector
data types.
 Each data type is often dependent upon
one another and stored as
 Points: points are zero dimensional
objects, and represent geographic Point
features such as wells, sample
locations, or trees.
 Lines: lines represent linear features,
such as road and stream centerlines. Line
Lines are made up of a series of
interconnected points.
 A line typically starts and end with a
special point called a node, and the
points that make up the rest of a line are Polygon
called vertices.
 Polygons are made up of a series of
connected lines where the starting point of a
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polygon is the same as the ending point
 Points

Points are zero dimensional objects which

have locations and attribute information but
are too small to be represented as areas.

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 Points

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 Light Poles

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 Lines or Arcs

Lines are one dimensional objects

which have length but no area.
Each line must begin and end at a
node.

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 Lines or Arcs

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 Street Centerlines

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 Polygons

Polygons are closed mathematical

figures of any shape or size. They
are formed by a series of
connected lines.

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 Polygons

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 Polygons

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 Polygons

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 Attribute Data

Information which describes an entity

represented by a graphic feature.

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 “Linked” Attributes

Courtesy Village of Garden City

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 How Vector data are represented

Point features

Line features

Polygon features

Annotation features

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 Vector – Advantages and
Disadvantages
 Advantages
 Good representation of reality

 Compact data structure

 Topology can be described in a network

 Accurate graphics

 Disadvantages
 Complex data structures
 Simulation may be difficult
 Some spatial analysis is difficult or impossible to
perform

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 Topology

A collection of numeric data which

clearly describes adjacency,
containment, and connectivity between
map features
and
which can be stored and manipulated
by a computer.

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 Topology

 Topology
describes the
spatial
relationships
Coincident
boundary

between
features
 Adjacency overlap
 Connectivity gap
 Overlap
nodes
 Intersection
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 Topology

 Describes how well the features imitate

the real-world situations
 Usually confined to testing for topology
errors
undershoot

overshoot
overlap
gap
Improper
dangle intersection pseudonode loop

Topological errors can occur when editing is not carefully performed.

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 Topology

 Contiguity: spatial relationship of

adjacency
 Connectivity: interconnected pathways
or networks
 i.e., street and trail networks, stream networks

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 Topological Model

 Topology: mathematical method to

define spatial relationships
 Arc-node data model
 Arc: a series of points that start and end at a
node
 Node: an intersection point where two or more
arcs meet

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 Topological Data Model…

Polygon topology
P1 Arc 1 Arc 3 E
Arc 2 Arc 3 N1 P1
P2
E outside coverage
N2
Node topology P2
N1 Arc 1 Arc 2 Arc 3
N2 Arc 1 Arc 2 Arc 3 E
Arc topology Arc coordinate data
Arc start end left right Arc start intermediate end
node node polygon polygon Arc 1 x 1, y 1 x2,y2, ..,.. x6,y6 x7,y7
Arc 1 N1 N2 E P1 Arc 2 x 7, y 7 x8,y8, ..,.. x11,y11 x1,y1
Arc 2 N2 N1 E P2 Arc 3 x 7, y 7 x12,y12 x1,y1
Arc 3 N2 N1 P2 P1
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 Topological Model cont..

 Relationships between features:

 Polygons can share parts of boundaries

 Polylines can share endpoints

 Supposed to prevent:
 Gaps
 Slivers
 Overlaps

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 Advantage of Topology

Topology allows automated error detection and

elimination.
Rarely are maps topologically clean when digitized or
imported.
A GIS has to be able to build topology from
unconnected arcs.
Nodes that are close together are snapped.
Slivers due to double digitizing and overlay are
eliminated.

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 Advantage of Topology cont…

 The tolerances controlling snapping,

elimination, and merging must be
considered carefully, because they can
move features.
 Complete topology makes map overlay
feasible.
 Topology allows many GIS operations to
be done without accessing the point
files.
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 Problems

 Common problems:
 Slivers

 Gaps

 Caused by:
 Reprojecting
 Different sources
 Editing or digitizing without snapping
 Any tool that changes the values of
coordinates in vector data
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 Slivers

Sliver

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 Unsnapped node

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 Topology rules
Topology rules establish
Shannon Bennett how features should be
County County spatially related.
Pine Ridge Indian Topology rules may
Reservation apply within a feature
class or between feature
classes.
• No gaps or overlaps
between counties
•boundaries should
These three layers show several match (overlap)
topology errors.
•The boundaries should
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 Topological Data Model…

5 Rules of topological consistency

1. Every arc must be bounded by nodes (begin and end)

2. Every arc borders 2 polygons (its left and right polygon)
5. Arcs only intersect at their bounding nodes
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 Topological Data Model…

5 Rules of topological consistency…

3. Every polygon has a closed boundary consisting of an

alternating sequence of nodes and arcs
4. Around every node exists an alternating sequence of arcs and
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polygons
 Comments/Questions

Thank you!

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