ECEEX 1: ELECTRONIC DEVICES

AND CIRCUITS
Lesson 3: Semiconductor Theory
PREPARED BY:
ENGR. ALBERT ANTHONY M. DELGADO, MECE
ECEEX 1 – ADVISER
LESSONS
Semiconductor Theory
• a. Semiconductor Materials
• b. Energy Levels
• c. N and P Type
• d. Covalent Bond/Crystal Structure
• e. Electron vs Hole Flow
• f. Minority and Majority Carriers
• g. PN Junction
SEMICONDUCTORS
Solid-state materials can be categorized
into three classes - insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.
Semiconductors are materials that have
electrical conductivity between conductors
(like metals) and insulators (like ceramics).
TYPICAL RESISTIVITY OF
SEMICONDUCTORS
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors can be composed of a
single element such as silicon and
germanium or consist of two or more
elements for compound semiconductors.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Most semiconductor materials are single
crystals. The figure below exhibits three
cubic crystal unit cells - simple cubic, body-
centered cubic, and face-centered cubic.
The element semiconductors, silicon and
germanium, have a diamond lattice
structure.
SEMICONDUCTORS
This is the crystal structure of a GaAs and
its bond model.
SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors can be compounds,

such as gallium arsenide, or pure
elements, such as germanium or
silicon. Gallium arsenide, germanium
and silicon are some of the most
commonly used semiconductors.
Silicon is used in electronic circuit
fabrication, and gallium arsenide is
used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.
SEMICONDUCTORS
Holes (valence electrons) are the positively
charged electric charge carrier, whereas
electrons are the negatively charged
particles. Both electrons and holes are
equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.
Semiconductors
• Semiconductors act like insulators at zero Kelvin. On
increasing the temperature, they work as conductors.
• Due to their exceptional electrical properties,
semiconductors can be modified by doping to make
semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion,
switches and amplifiers.
• Lesser power losses.
• Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less
weight.
• Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser
than insulators.
• The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases
with an increase in temperature and vice-versa.
 ENERGY LEVELS
Valence Band: This band contains electrons
bound to atoms and responsible for chemical
bonding.
Conduction Band: Electrons in this band are
free to move and conduct electricity.
Energy Gap: The gap between the valence and
conduction bands is known as the band gap,
and its size determines whether a material
behaves as a conductor, semiconductor, or
insulator.
Silicon has an energy gap of about 1.1 eV,
making it an ideal semiconductor material.
ENERGY LEVELS
ENERGY LEVELS

If a semiconductor is transparent to light

with a wavelength longer than 0.87 µm,
what is its band-gap energy given that the
planks constant is 6.62607015×10−34 J/s?
What is this semiconductor if the electron’s
charge is 1.601217663x10-19 C?
ENERGY LEVELS
Holes (valence electrons) are the positively
charged electric charge carrier, whereas
electrons are the negatively charged
particles. Both electrons and holes are
equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity.
Types of Semiconductors
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is
made to be very pure chemically. It is made up of
only a single type of element
Types of Semiconductors
An extrinsic type of semiconductor material is
made by means of doping to further improve its
electrical properties.
N-type and P-type Semiconductors

• N-Type: Doping silicon with atoms like

phosphorus (which has 5 valence
electrons) introduces extra electrons,
which act as negative charge carriers.
• P-Type: Doping silicon with atoms like
boron (which has 3 valence electrons)
creates "holes" or positive charge carriers
where an electron is missing.
N-type and P-type Semiconductors
COVALENT BOND/CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

In a semiconductor, the atoms are

arranged in a crystal lattice. Silicon
atoms, for example, bond covalently
by sharing their outer electrons. The
result is a stable structure with
electrons locked in bonds, contributing
to semiconductor behavior at different
temperatures.
ELECTRON & HOLE FLOW
• In a semiconductor, two types of charge
carriers exist:
• Electron Flow: The movement of
negatively charged electrons.
• Hole Flow: Holes behave like positive
charges and move in the opposite
direction to electron flow, effectively
allowing current to flow through the
semiconductor.
Minority and Majority Carriers
Majority Carriers: In an N-type material,
electrons are the majority carriers, while in
a P-type material, holes are the majority
carriers.
Minority Carriers: In N-type material, holes
are the minority carriers, and in P-type
material, electrons are the minority
carriers.
PN Junction
• A PN junction is formed by joining P-type and N-
type materials. Key characteristics:
• Depletion Region: Near the junction, electrons and
holes combine, creating a region with no free charge
carriers. This is known as the depletion region.
• Forward Bias: When the P-side is connected to the
positive terminal and the N-side to the negative
terminal, the depletion region narrows, allowing
current to flow.
• Reverse Bias: When the terminals are reversed,
the depletion region widens, preventing current flow.
 Semiconductor Diodes
• The topic on semiconductor diode is
further classified into Ideal Diodes,
Diode Applications, Special-purpose
diodes, No bias, forward bias and
reverse bias, Zener region, Silicon vs
germanium diodes, Resistance levels,
Diode testing, and LED.
 Semiconductor Diodes
A semiconductor diode is a p-n
junction diode. It is a two-terminal
(anode and cathode) device that
conducts current only in one direction.
 Semiconductor Diodes
• An ideal diode is a theoretical concept that
simplifies real-world diodes to illustrate their
primary function:
• In forward bias: An ideal diode acts like a
perfect conductor with zero resistance,
allowing current to pass through without any
voltage drop.
• In reverse bias: It behaves like a perfect
insulator with infinite resistance, blocking all
current.
 Types of Semiconductor Diodes
• LED
• Zener diode
• Rectifier diode
• Tunnel diode
• Variable capacitance diode
• Photodiode
• Switching diode
• Gunn diode
 Types of Semiconductor Diodes
• LED
• Zener diode
• Rectifier diode
• Tunnel diode
• Variable capacitance diode
• Photodiode
• Switching diode
• Gunn diode
Applications of Semiconductor Diodes
1. Rectifier diode which is used for the
rectification of alternating current.
2. Gunn diode which is one of the
components of high-frequency electronics.
3. Zener diodes are used for the
stabilisation of current and voltage in
electronic systems.
4. Photodiode works as a photo-detector.
Applications of Semiconductor Diodes
5. Switching diode which is used for fast
switching requirements.
6. A tunnel diode is a special diode that is used
in the negative dynamic resistance region.
7. LED is used for emitting an infrared light
spectrum.
8. A variable capacitance diode is used when a
voltage is applied in reverse biased condition.
 Special-Purpose Diodes
Besides the standard diode, there are several
special-purpose diodes, each serving
different functions:
1.Zener Diode: Used for voltage regulation,
allowing current to flow in reverse once the
Zener voltage is reached.
2.Light-Emitting Diode (LED): Emits light
when forward biased. LEDs are commonly
used in displays, indicators, and lighting.
 Special-Purpose Diodes
3. Schottky Diode: Has a low forward
voltage drop and fast switching time, used
in high-speed switching applications.
4. Photodiode: Generates current when
exposed to light, used in light detection
and solar panels.
5. Varactor Diode: Operates as a variable
capacitor in tuning circuits.
 Special-Purpose Diodes
3. Schottky Diode: Has a low forward
voltage drop and fast switching time, used
in high-speed switching applications.
4. Photodiode: Generates current when
exposed to light, used in light detection
and solar panels.
5. Varactor Diode: Operates as a variable
capacitor in tuning circuits.
No Bias, Forward Bias, and Reverse
Bias
No Bias: When no external voltage is
applied, no current flows through the diode.
No Bias, Forward Bias, and Reverse
Bias
Forward Bias: When the anode is connected to a
positive voltage and the cathode to a negative
voltage, the diode allows current to flow.
No Bias, Forward Bias, and Reverse
Bias
Reverse Bias: When the anode is connected to a
negative voltage and the cathode to a positive
voltage, the diode blocks current flow, except for
a very small leakage current.
Semiconductor Diode Characteristics
.
 Zener Region
The Zener region refers to the behavior of
a Zener diode in reverse bias. When the
reverse voltage reaches a critical value
(known as the Zener breakdown
voltage), the diode begins to conduct in
reverse. This is useful for voltage regulation
because the Zener diode maintains a
constant voltage across its terminals even if
the supply voltage fluctuates.
Zener Region
Silicon vs Germanium Diodes
Diodes are typically made from
silicon or germanium, each having
different characteristics:
Resistance Levels in Diodes
• Diodes exhibit different resistance in
forward and reverse bias:
• Forward Resistance: When forward
biased, the resistance is low, allowing
current to flow.
• Reverse Resistance: In reverse bias, the
resistance is very high, blocking current
flow. The exact resistance depends on the
type of diode and the biasing condition.
 Diode Testing
• To check if a diode is functioning correctly, a
multimeter is used in diode mode:
1.Forward bias test: Place the multimeter’s
positive lead on the anode and the negative
lead on the cathode. A forward voltage drop
(~0.7V for silicon) should be measured.
2.Reverse bias test: Place the multimeter’s
negative lead on the anode and the positive
lead on the cathode. No current should flow
(infinite resistance).
• A working diode should show low resistance in
forward bias and high resistance in reverse
bias.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• An LED is a special type of diode that
emits light when forward biased. It
operates based on
electroluminescence, where
electrons recombine with holes to
release energy in the form of light.
• LED structure: LEDs have a p-n
junction like a regular diode but are
made from materials such as gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and gallium
phosphide (GaP) to produce light of
different colors (e.g., red, green, blue).
Light Emitting Diode (LED)