Computer Networks

Class 12
1.
Prerequisite
 Computer Science- Class XI

1.
s Learning Outcomes
 Apply the concept of functions and
recursion.
 Ability to create and use Python libraries.
 Apply the concept of file handling.
 Make use of the concept of
efficiency in
algorithms and computing in general.
 Ability to use basic data structures:
Stacksand
Queues.
 Explain the basics of computer
●Evolution of Networking: ARPANET, Internet, Interspace Different ways of sending
data across the network with reference to switching techniques (Circuit and Packet
switching).
● Data Communication terminologies: Concept of Channel, Bandwidth (Hz,
KHz, MHz) and
Data transfer rate (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps, Tbps).
● Transmission media: Twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, infrared, radio
link,
microwave link and satellite link.
●Network devices: Modem, RJ45 connector, Ethernet Card, Router, Switch, Gateway,
WiFi card.
● Network Topologies and types: Bus, Star, Tree, PAN, LAN, WAN, MAN.
●Network Protocol: TCP/IP, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), PPP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3,
Remote Login (Telnet) and Internet, Wireless / Mobile Communication protocol such as
GSM, GPRS and WLL.
● Mobile Telecommunication Technologies: 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G; Mobile
processors;
Electronic mail protocols such as SMTP, POP3, Protocols for Chat and Video
Conferencing:
VoIP, Wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMax
● Network Security Concepts:
Threats and prevention from Viruses, Worms, Trojan horse, Spams Use of Cookies,
Protection
using Firewall, https; India IT Act, Cyber Law, Cyber Crimes, IPR issues, hacking.
●Introduction To Web services: WWW, Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML),
 ARPANET

 Internet

 Interspace

 Different ways of sending data across

the network with reference to switching
techniques
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
 Networking started way back in 1969 with the
development of the first network called the ARPANET.
 The U.S. department of defence sponsored a project
named ARPANET whose goal was to connect computers at
different universities and U.S. defence.
 Soon engineers, scientists, students and researchers who
were
part of this system began exchanging data and messages
on it.
 Gradually they could play long distance games and also
socialize
with people. Hence ARPANET expanded rapidly.
 In mid 80s, the National Science Foundation created a
new high
capacity network called NSFnet
 NSFnet which allowed only academic research on its
network.
 The Internet is a system of linked networks that
are worldwide in scope and facilitate data
communication services such as remote login, file
transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and
newsgroups.
 The Internet is made up of many networks each
run by a
different companies and are interconnected at
peering
 It connects many smaller networks together and
allows all the computers to exchange information
with each other through a common set of rules for
communication. These rules are called protocols
and the internet uses Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 The Internet was initially restricted to military and
academic institutions, but now it is a full-fledged
conduit for any and all forms of information and
 It is a client/server software program
that allows multiple users to
communicate online with real time
audio, video and text chat in dynamic
3D environments.
 It provides the most advanced form of
communication technology available
today. It is a vision of what internet will
become tomorrow.
 The users will be able to communicate
in multiple ways and from multiple
sources instantly.
 techniqu are
Switchin es used to
g transmit data across
efficientl the
y
network.
  Technique in which a
dedicated and complete
nodes connection
physical and through this
is established between
communicati channe dedicated two
on l, the nodes
 communicate.
The circuit guaranteesmay the full
bandwidth of the channel and remains
connected for the duration of the
communication session.
 Even if no communication is taking place in
a dedicated circuit, that channel still
remains unavailable to other users (idle
 The defining example of a circuit-
switched network is the early
analogue telephone network.
 When a call is made from one telephone
to another, switches within the
telephone exchange create a
continuous wire circuit between
the two telephones, for as long as the
call lasts
 Technique in which packets (discrete
blocks of data of fixed size and of any
content, type or structure) are routed
between nodes over data links shared with
other traffic.
 The term "packets" refers to the fact that
the data stream from your computer is
broken up into packets of about 200
 bytes (on average), which
Each packet a are then sent
"header"
out onto information
contains the network. with
necessary for from routing the
 source to destination.
Each packet packet
in a data stream is
independent.
 The main advantage of packet-
switching is that the packets from
many different sources can share a
line, allowing for very efficient use of
the communication medium.
 With current technology, packets are
generally accepted onto the network on
a first-come, first-served basis.
 If the network becomes overloaded,
packets are delayed or discarded
("dropped").
 This method of data transmission
became the fundamental networking
technology behind the internet and
 Concept of Channel

 Bandwidth
(Hz, KHz, MHz)

 Data transfer rate (DTR)

(bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps,
Tbps).
 Medium that is used in the transmission
of a message from one point to
another.
 Or It is a pathway
between over which data is
remote devices.
 transferred
It may refer to the entire physical
medium, such as a telephone line, optical
fibre, coaxial cable or twisted pair wire, or,
it may refer to one of the several carrier
frequencies transmitted simultaneously
within the line.
 Depending on their speed, we have three
broad
categories of communication channels
 Narrow Band
 slow and used for telegraph lines and low speed
terminals;
 Voice
Band
 used for
 Range of frequencies available for
transmission of data.
 It is expressed as the difference in
Hertz(Hz) between the highest
frequency and the lowest frequency.
 For example , a typical voice signal has
a bandwidth of approximately 3KHz.
 Wider the bandwidth of a
communication system, greater is the
capacity and hence greater is the
amount of data that can be
transmitted over a period of time.
 In computer networking, bandwidth is
often used as a synonym for data
 Amount of data in digital form that is
moved from one place to another in a
given time on a network.
 As studied before, the greater the
bandwidth of a given medium, the higher is
the data transfer rate.
 This can also be referred to as throughput,
although data transfer rate applies
specifically to digital data streams.
 Data transfer rate is often measured in
bits per second (bps), although the unit
baud , which is one bit per second is also
used.
 Commonly used to measure how fast
data is transferred from one location to
another.
 For example, your ISP may offer an Internet
connection with a maximum data transfer
 A transmission medium (plural media)is
one which
carries a signal from one computer to
another.
 It is also known as communication channel.
 Transmission medium can be wired or wireless.

 Wired or Guided Transmission Media :

Physically connects the two computers.

 The data signal physically gets transferred
from the transmitting computer to the receiving
computeror Unbounded
 Wireless through theorwired transmission
medium.media
Unguided using
 transport electromagnetic a
The signals are
 waveswithout broadcasted
physical conductor. through air or
water and thus are available to anyone that has a
device capable of receiving them
 One of the common forms of wiring in
networks, especially in LANs and it consists of
two insulated wires arranged in a regular
spiral pattern (double helix).
 It is generally used for telephone
communications in offices and also in
modern Ethernet networks
 The twisting of wires reduces crosstalk
which is the bleeding of a signal from one wire
to another.
 This crosstalk can corrupt the signal and hence
cause
network errors.
 In addition to preventing internal crosstalk, the

Advantages
 Capable of carrying a signal over long
: distances without amplification.
 Simple, low weight, easy to install and
easy to maintain.
 Adequate and least expensive medium for
low speed (up to 10 mbps) applications
where the distance between the nodes is
relatively small.
 Disadvantages:
 Itcan easily pick up noise signals.
 Being thin in size, it is likely to break
easily.
 Unsuitable for broadband applications.
 Twisted
Pair
Cable

Shielded Unshielded
Twisted Twisted
Pair(STP) Pair(UTP)
Cable Cable
 The STP cable comes with shielding of the
individual pairs of wires, which further
protects it from external interference and
crosstalk.
 But STP is heavier and costlier
than UTP and
 Most commonly used transmission media for
LANs.
 Consists of solid wire cores surrounded by
one or more foil or wire shields, each
separated by some kind of plastic insulator.
 The inner core carries the signal and the
shield
provides the ground.
 It has high electrical properties and is
suitable for
high speed communication.
 Widely used for television signals and also by
large corporations in building security systems.
Advantages
 Data transmission characteristics are
better than
that of twisted pair.
 Can be used for broadband
communication i.e. several channels can
be transmitted simultaneously.
 It offers high bandwidth (up to 400 mbps)
 It can be used as the basis for shared cable
network.
Disadvantages
 It is expensive as comparedto twisted
pair cables
 Not compatible with modern
cables like UTP and STP
 The
common types of
cables are Thicknet
twoand Thinnet.
most
Thicknet
 It is thicker and its
cable segments can
be up to 500
metres long

 Thinnet
 It is thinner and it
can have a
maximum segment
length of 185
metres
 Consists of thin strands of glass or glass
like material which are so constructed that
they carry light from a source at one end
of the fibre to a detector at the other end.
 The light sources used are either light
emitting
diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes (LDs).
 The data to be transmitted is modulated
onto a light beam using frequency
modulation techniques.
 At the receiver's end, the signals are
demodulated.
 Offer a very high bandwidth and this
makes it capable of multichannel
 The Optical fibre consists of three
layers:
 Core - glass or plastic through which the
light
travels
 Cladding - covering of the core that
reflects the
light back to the core
Advantages
 Immune to electrical and magnetic
interference.
 Highly suitable for harsh industrial
environments.
 Guarantees secure transmission and has a
very high transmission capacity.
 Can be used for broadband
transmission where
several channels can be handled in parallel.

Disadvantages
 Difficult to install and maintain since they
are quite
fragile.
 Most expensive of all cables.
 Connecting two fibres togetheror even
 Single node fibre optic cable: It
supports a segment length of up to
2kms and bandwidth of up to100Mbps
 Multinode fibre optic cable: It has a
segment length of 100kms and
bandwidth of 2Gbps
 Infrared is the frequency of light that is
not
visible to human eye.
 It has a range of wavelengths, just like
visible light has wavelengths from red light
to violet light. Far infrared waves are
thermal.
 These shorter wavelengths are the ones
used by
your TV remotes.
 Infrared communication requires a
transceiver (a combination of
transmitter and receiver) in both devices
that communicate.
 Playing an important role in wireless data
communication due to the popularity of
laptop computers , personal digital
assistants(PDAs) , digital cameras , mobile
phones , pagers and other devices
Advantages
 Since it is having short range of
communication hence it is considered
to be a secure mode of transmission.
 Quite inexpensive transmission
medium.
Disadvantages
 Used for short
wave range communication
transmission pas
Infrare obstructions
cannot like walls,
s
d buildings
throu
gh
etc.
 Certain radio frequencies are allocated to
private/government organizations for
direct voice communications.
 Each radio signal uses a different
frequency
and this differentiates it from others.
 The transmitter takes some message,
encodes it and then transmits it with
radio wave.
 The receiver on the other hand receives
the radio waves and decodes it.
 Both the transmitter and the receiver use
antennas to radiate and capture the
radio signal.
 Widely used by delivery services,
Advantages
 It is easy to communicate through radio
waves in difficult terrains since there
is no need of digging and laying cables.
 Radio waves can travel through long
distances in all directions.
 Also they can easily pass through
obstacles like a building so they can be
used for both indoor and outdoor
communication.
 Disadvantages
 It is susceptible to weather effects like
rain, thunderstorm etc.
 Data transmitted through radiowaves is
not secure.
 Permits data transmission rates of about 16
gigabits per
second.
 Uses high frequency radio signals to transmit data
through space.
 Like radio waves, microwaves can pass through
obstacles
viz. buildings, mountains etc.
 Microwaves offer a line of sight method of
communication.
 A transmitter and receiver of a microwave system
are mounted on very high towers and both
should be visible to each other (line of sight)
 In case of microwave transmission, curvature of
the earth, mountains and other structures often
block the line of sight.
 Hence several repeater stations are required for
long distance transmission thereby increasing
the cost considerably.
 It is generally used for long distance telephonic
communications.
Advantages
 Microwavetransmission does
expense of
not laying cables
require the
 It can carry 25000 voice channels at
the same
time.
 Since no cables are to be laid down so it
offers ease of communication over difficult
terrains like hilly areas.
Disadvantages
 Signals become weak after travelling a
certain
distance and so require amplification.
 Toovercome this problem, repeaters are used at
regular intervals (25-30 kms).This makes it a
very expensive mode of communication
 Installation and maintenance of
microwave links
turns out be a very expensive affair.
 Essential part of telecommunications
systems worldwide
today.
 Carry a large amount of data in addition to TV
signals.
 A satellite is placed precisely at 36000 km above
the equator where its orbit speed exactly matches
the earth's rotation speed.
 Hence it always stays over the same point with
respect to
the earth.
 This allows the ground station to aim its antenna at a
fixed
point in the sky.
 The ground station consists of a satellite dish that
functions as an antenna and communication
equipment to transmit (called Uplink) and receive
(called Downlink) data from satellites passing
overhead.
 Typical data transfer rates are 1 to 10 Mbps.
 Satellites are especially used for remote locations,
which
Advantages
 Very economical keeping in mind the fact
that the area covered through satellite
transmission is quite large. For e.g.,
satellites used for national transmission are
visible from all parts of the country.
 Transmission and reception costs are
independent of the distance between the
two points.
Disadvantages
 Placing the satellite into its orbitinvolves
very
high cost.
 Since signals sent to a satellite are
broadcasted to all receivers, so necessary
security measures have to be taken to
prevent unauthorized tampering of
data.
 Transmission is affected by weather
 Modem

 RJ45
connector

 Ethernet
Card

 Router

 Switch

 Gateway
 Computer hardware devices which are
used to connect computers, printers, or
any other electronic device to a
computer network are called network
devices.
These devicesway
 and transfer
withdata
some in a fast,
secure
correct over specific or
functionalit same different
 ySome
networks.
devices are installed on the
device, like Internal modem, NIC card
or RJ 45 connector, where as some are
part of the network, like router,
switch, etc.
 Modem is short for Modulator
Demodulator.
 It’s an electronic device used to
access the Internet that modulates
carrier waves to encode information
to be transmitted and also demodulates
incomng carrier waves to decode the
information they carry.
 Modulation means digital to analog
 RJ-45 , short form of Registered Jack -
45
 It is an eight wired connector that is
used to connect computers on a local
area network(LAN), especially Ethernet.
 RJ-45 connectors look similar to the RJ-
11 connector used for connecting
 This is at top among other
networking devices and mostly used
networking device.
 This is also known as network adapter
card, Ethernet Card and LAN card.
 It allows our PC to communicate with other
PCs.
 A PC uses parallel data transmission to
transmit data between its internal parts
whereas the media that connects this
PC with other device
 Routers operate in the physical, data
link and network layers.
 Router is a networking device which
chooses the best optimal path from
available paths to send the signals.
 It inter connects different networks.
 The simplest function of a router is to
received packets from one connected
network and pass them to second
connected network.
 Switch is also used to connect multiple
computers together in a LAN workgroup,
just like hub.
 Switches are available with 4, 8, 12, 24,
48, 64
ports.
 Switch makes their switching decisions
by using
application specific integrated circuits
(AS ICs).
 Due to switching decision capability, switch
sends signal to recipient only and that’s
why switches are called as intelligent
 A networking device capable to
convert protocols so that two
different network architecture
based system can communicate with
each other.
 It works as protocol convertor.
 A network gateway can be
implemented completely in
software, completely in hardware,
or as a combination of both.
 A gateway is often associated with
both a router, which knows where
to direct a given packet of data that
arrives at the gateway, and a
switch, which furnishes the
actual path in and out of the
gateway for a given packet.
 It expands the functionality of the
router by performing data
translation and protocol
conversion.
 In computer networking, a default
 Wi-Fi cards are small and portable cards that allow
your desktop or laptop computer to connect to the
internet through a wireless network.
 Wi-Fi transmission is through the use of radio
waves.
 The antenna transmits the radio signals and
these signals are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers
such as computers and cell phones equipped with
Wi-Fi cards.
 These devices have to be within the range of a
Wi-Fi
network to receive the signals.
 The Wi-Fi card then reads the signals and
produces a
wireless internet connection.
 Once a connection is established between user and
the network, the user will be prompted with a login
screen and password if the connection being
established is a secure connection.
 Wi-Fi cards can be external or internal.
 If a Wi-Fi card is not installed in your computer, you
may purchase a USB antenna attachment and

Network
 Network
Topology

 Bus

 Star

 Tree

 Network Types

 PAN

 LAN

 WAN

 MAN
 A network is any collection of
independent
computers that communicate with
one another over a shared network
medium.
 Need for networking/ Advantages
 Resourcesharing - files and
peripherals
 Sharing of files and software
 Sharing Peripherals
 Sharing storage
 Improving communication
 Access to remote database
 Disadvantage
 Difficult
to set up
 Threat to data
 The geometrical arrangement of
computer resources, network
devices
communication along is known
channel with as
Network structure or Network topology

BU
S
STA
R
Topology TREE
 Nodes are connected a
through
communication media common
like
diagram given below

Advantages of a Bus topology

 Easy to install
 Minimal Cable
Disadvantages of a Bus
topology
 Difficult reconnection
 Difficult to find the problem
 Difficult to add new devices

 The star topology uses a separate cable for
each node/
workstation.
 The cable connects the node to a central device
typically a HUB.
Advantages
 Less expensive than mesh
 Easy to install, easy to
configure
 If one link fails the network
can still function
Disadvantages
 Large amount of cable is
needed which increases
the installation cost of
the network.
 The central node fails the
entire network goes down.
 In which a central root node (the top
level of the hierarchy ) is connected to
one or more other nodes that are one
level lower in the hierarchy.
Advantages
 It is scalable.
 Easier fault
identification and
isolation
Disadvantages
 Maintenance of the
network may be an issue
when the network spans
a great area.
 if the backbone fails, the
 Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Local Area Network (LAN)–limited area

(with in building )

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)–with

in city

 Wide Area Network (WAN)–with in

multiple city / state / countries
 It is a computer network
organized around an
 individual
It typically person.
involve a mobile computer, a
cell phone and/or a handheld computing
device such as a PDA.
 Used to transfer files including email and
calendar appointments, digital photos and
music.
 Can be constructed with cables or be
wireless.
 Wired PAN- USB
 Wireless PANs -bluetooth or sometimes infrared
 Generally cover a range of less than 10
meters (about 30 feet).
 Special type (or subset) of local area
network (LAN) that supports one person
instead of a group.
 LANs are the most frequently
used/ discussed networks.
 One of the simplest types of network.
 It is designed for small physical areas
such as an
office, group of buildings.
 Any of different types of topologies can
be used
to design LAN like Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
Characteristics of LAN
 Private networksmeansno need of
regulatory control.
 Operate at relatively high speed.
 Ethernet, Token ring etc type media
access
controls are used
Advantages of LAN
 Resource Sharing
 Software Applications
Sharing
 Easy and Cheap
Communication
 Centralized Data
 Data Security
 Internet Sharing
Disadvantages of LAN
 High Setup Cost
 Privacy Violations
 Data Security Threat
 LAN Maintenance Job
 Slightly more complex than a LAN
 A WAN connects computers across longer
physical distances.
 The Internet is the most basic example of
a WAN, connecting all computers together
around the world.
 Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically
owned and maintained by any single
person or owner.
Characteristics of WAN
 Covers large distances(states, countries,
continents).
 Communication medium like satellite,
public telephone networks etc and routers
are used establish connection.
Advantages of WAN
 Long distance business can connect on the
one
network.
 Shares software and resources
 Messages can be sent very quickly to wide
range of nodes
 Hardware devices can be shared.

Disadvantages of WAN
 Need a good firewall to restrict
unauthorized
access
 Setting up a network can be an expensive,
slow
and complicated.
 Maintaining a network is a full-time job
 Bigger version of LAN and normally uses
similar technology.
 It might cover few buildings in a city and
might either be private or public.
 This is a network which spans a physical
area ( in the range of 5 and 50 km
diameter) that is larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN.
 Usually characterized by very high-speed
connections using optical fibres or
other digital media
 The MAN, its communications links and
equipment are generally owned by either a
consortium of users or by a single
network provider who sells the service to
the users.
 Since MAN adopts technologies from
both LAN and WAN to serve its purpose, it
 TCP/IP
 File Transfer Protocol
 (FTP)
PPP
 HTTP
 SMTP
 POP3
 Remote Login (Telnet
 Wireless / Mobile Communication
protocol
 GSM
 GPRS
 WLL
 The special set of rules that two or
more machines on a network follow to
communicate with each other
 A protocol defines how computers
identify one another on a network,
the form that the data should take in
transit, and how this information is
processed once it reaches its final
destination
 Two protocols that are used together
and together they form the backbone
protocol of the internet.
 Can also be used for private networks
i.e. intranets and extranets.
 TCP/IP communication is primarily point-
to- point transmission of data which
means each communication is from one
computer in the network to another
computer.
 No dedicated connection is required.
 This makes the network paths freely
available for everyone to use
 TCP breaks the data into packets
that the network can handle efficiently.
 It manages the assembling of a
message or file into smaller packets
that are transmitted over the Internet.
 It verifies all the packets when they
arrive at the destination computer and
then reassembles them in proper
order.
 Data can be lost in the intermediate
network.
 So TCP adds support to detect
errors or lost data and to trigger
retransmission until the data is
 IP handles the address part of each
packet so that it reaches to the
right destination.
 It gives distinct address (called IP
address) to each data packet.
 Each gateway computer on the
network checks this address to see
where to forward the message.
 Even though some packets from the
same message are routed differently
than others, they'll be reassembled
at the destination.
 An IP address is a unique identifier
for a node or host connection on an IP
network.
 An IP address is a 32 bit binary
number usually represented as 4
decimal values, each representing 8
bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known
as octets) separated by decimal
points.
 This is known as "dotted decimal"
notation.

 Example:
 140.179.220.200
 This is the simplest and one of the oldest
protocols designed for transferring files of
any type(ASCII or binary) from one
system to another on the internet.
 FTP is an application protocol that uses
the Internet's TCP/IP protocols.
 FTP is based on Client/Server principle.
 By giving the ftp command with any
remote
address, the file transfer can be initiated
 FTP establishes two connections
between the hosts. One connection is used
for data transfer and the other for
control information.
 The control connection remains
connected during the entire interactive
FTP session while the data connection is
 PPP is used for communication between
two computers using a serial
interface, mostly a personal computer
connected by phone line to a
server.
 For example, an ISP may provide you
with a PPP connection so that the
ISP's server can respond to your
requests, pass them on to the
Internet, and forward your
requested Internet responses back
to you.
 It encapsulates and packages your
computer's TCP/IP packets into PPP
frames and then forwards them to the
 HTTP is the protocol that is used for
transferring hypertext (i.e. text,
graphic, image, sound, video etc.)
between two computers and is
particularly used on the World Wide
Web.
 It is a TCP/IP based communication
protocol and provides a standard for
Web browsers and servers to
communicate
 HTTP is based on Client/Server
principle.
 Communication between the host and
the client occurs through a
request/response pair
 it is connectionless
 Allows transmission of email over the
Internet
 It
Soonly works
when for outgoing
an email has to bemessages.
sent, the
address of their ISP’s SMTP server has
to be given.
 The actual mail transfer is done through
Message Transfer Agents(MTA).
 So the client computer must have a client
MTA
and the server must have a server MTA.
 SMTP actually defines the MTA
client and the
server on the internet.
 SMTP is a reliable and easy to set up
protocol
 Updated version of the SMTP protocol
 POP3 is the third version of a
widespread method of receiving
email which receives and holds email
for an individual until they pick it up.
 SMTP has a disadvantage that if the
destination computer is not online,
mails cannot be received.
 So the SMTP server receives the
mail on behalf of every host and the
respective host then interacts with the
SMTP server to retrieve messages by
using a client server protocol called
POP3.
 Many popular email programs, including
Microsoft Outlook, are automatically
designed to work with POP3
 Telnet is mai intern protocol
the
creating n et
connectionwith fora
remote
a you to connect to remot
machine. (called remote e
It allows
 TCP/IP hosts)
network over
(such as the Internet).
 compute a
Once your telnet client establishes a
rs
connection to the remote host, your
client becomes a virtual terminal,
allowing you to communicate with the
remote host from your computer
 Telnet clients are available for all
major OS
viz. Mac OS X, Windows, Unix, and Linux
 Any device that does not need to remain
at one place to carry out its functions is a
mobile device.
 So laptops, smartphones and
personal digital assistants are some
examples of mobile devices.
 Due to their portable nature,
mobile devices connect to networks
wirelessly.
 Mobile communicationprotocols use multiplexing
to send information.
 Multiplexing is a method to combine multiple digital
signals
or analoginto one signal over the data channel.
 This ensuresoptimum utilization of
expensive resource and
time.
 At the destination these signals are de-multiplexed to
recover individual signals.

 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) −

 Here each user is assigned a different frequency from the
complete
spectrum.
 All the frequencies can then simultaneously travel
on the data
channel.
 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) −
 A single radio frequency is divided into multiple slots and each
slot is
assigned to a different user.
 So multiple users can be supported simultaneously.
 CDM (Code Division Multiplexing) −
 Here several users share the same frequency spectrum
 One of the most widely used digital wireless
telephony
 system.
It was developed in Europe in 1980s
international and is now in
standard Africa. Europe, Australia,
 Any GSM handset withAsia and
a SIM (Subscriber Identity
Module)
card can be used in any country that uses this
standard.
 Every SIM card has a unique identification
number.
 It has memory to store applications and data like
phone numbers, processor to carry out its functions
and software to send and receive messages
 GSM technology uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple
Access) to support up to eight calls simultaneously.

 It also uses encryption
However, GSM usedto make the in
data more
1900
phones
secure. frequency the US MHz
 and frequencies
The hence used by the international
use are with
standard
international
is 900 not the
system. compatible
 It is a packet based wireless
communication technology that charges
users based on the volume of data they
send rather than the time duration for
which they are using the service.
 This is possible because GPRS sends data
over the network in packets and its
throughput depends on network traffic.
 As traffic increases, service quality may
go down due to congestion, hence it is
logical to charge the users as per data
volume transmitted.
 GPRS is the mobile communication protocol
used by second (2G) and third
generation (3G) of mobile telephony.
 It pledges a speed of 56 kbps to 114
kbps, however the actual speed may vary
 It is a wireless local telephone service
that can be provided in homes or offices.
 The connect to their
subscribers local
exchange of the central
 instead
Using wireless linkexchange
eliminates last mile or
wirelessly.
first mile construction of network
connection, thereby reducing cost and
set up time.
 As data is transferred over very short
range, it
is more secure than wired networks.
 WLL system consists of user handsets
and a base
station.
 The base station is
connectedto the central
exchange as well as an antenna.
 The antenna transmits to and receives calls
 1G

 2G

 3G

 4G

 5G

 Mobile
processors
 communicationis based on
Mobile
networks.cellular
 A cellular network is nothing but a
radio
network.
 In this network, land is divided into areas
called
cells.
 Every cell in the network has a transmitter
and a receiver known as cell site or base
station.
 Each cell in the network uses different
frequency for the transmission of signals.
 When joined together these cells provide
radio coverage over a large geographical
area.
 Introduced in late 1970s and early
1980s
 Based

Based on
on the analog cellular
circuit-switched technology
 technology.
Voice was modulated to a frequency of
about 150MHz and higher.
 Use radio towers for transmission
 Some characteristics of 1G
communication are −
 Speeds up to 2.4 kbps
 Low Capacity
 Poor voice quality
 Large phones with limited battery life
 No data security

FDMA
 Stands for Frequency Division Multiple Access.
 Each user utilizes a portion of the frequency
bandwidth
available.
 Each user has its own frequency domain
 CDMA
 It stands for Code Division Multiple Access.
 In this, each user is allocated a unique code
sequence.
 On the sender's end, the data signal is encoded
using the
given unique code.
 The receiver decodes the signal according the unique
code and recovers the original data.
 TDMA
 It stands for Time Division Multiple Access.
 In this, each user is allowed to transmit only
within specified time intervals.
 Different users transmit in different time slots.
 When users transmit, they occupy the whole
 Used digital signals for the first time.
 It was launchedin Finland in 1991 and used
technology.
GSM
 2G enabled the mobile systems to
provide paging, SMS, voicemail and fax
services
 Both voice and data conversations were
digitally
encrypted
 Some prominent characteristics of 2G
communication
are −
 Data speeds up to 64 kbps
 Text and multimedia messaging possible
 Better quality than 1G
 They used circuit switching
 When GPRS technology was introduced, it
enabled web browsing, e-mail services and fast
upload/download speeds.
 2G with GPRS is also referred as 2.5G, a step
 Began with the start of the new millennium and
offered
 major
Also advancement over previous
known as Universal Mobilegenerations.
Telecommunications
System (UMTS) or IMT-2000.
 Some of the characteristics of this generation are −
 Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps
 High speed web browsing
 Running web based applications like video
conferencing, multimedia e-mails, etc.
 Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
 Support for both packet-switched and
circuit-switched data transmission
 Some downsides of 3G technology −
 Expensive mobile phones
 High infrastructure costs like licensing fees and mobile
towers
 Trained personnel required for infrastructure set up
 The intermediate generation, 3.5G grouped together
dissimilar mobile telephony and data technologies
and paved way for the next generation of mobile
communication.
 Introduced in
2011.
 Based on packet switching only
 Its major characteristics are −
 Provide speeds up to 100 Mbps while
moving and 1Gbps while stationary
 Mobile web access
 High definition mobile TV
 Cloud computing
 IP telephony
 LTE is an abbreviation for Long Term
Evolution.
 LTE is a 4G wireless communications standard
developed by the 3rd Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP) that's designed to provide up to
 Enables a new kind
ofnetwork that is designed
to connect virtually
everyone and everything
together including
machines, objects, and
devices.
 Meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak
data speeds, ultra low latency, more
reliability, massive network capacity,
increased availability, and a more
uniform user experience to more users
 Based on OFDM (Orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing),
A method of modulating a digital

VoIP
 Wireless
technologies
 Wi-Fi
 WiMax
 It means telephone services over
Internet.
 Traditionally Internet had used for
exchanging been due
messages but its
in technology, to
advanceme
quality service
has increased
nt
manifold.
 It is now to deliver
possible voice IP
networks
converting voice data into by
communication
 packets.
VoIP is a set overof syste
develope protocols ms
d and to servic
seamless provide this e
ly.
 Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve
connection to the Internet without a direct cable
between device and Internet Service Provider.
 Wi-Fi enabled device and wireless router are
for setting up a Wi-Fi connection.
required
 These are some characteristics of
wireless Internet
connection −
 Range of 100 yards
 Insecure connection
 Throughput of 10-12 Mbps
 If a PC or laptop does not have Wi-Fi capacity, it
can be added using a Wi-Fi card.
 The physical area of the network which provides
Internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi
hotspot.
 Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any
public
space like airport, railway stations, etc.
 Hotspots themselves are connected to the
 To overcome the drawback of Wi-Fi connections,
(Worldwide WiMax
Interoperability for MicrowaveAccess)
 developed.
WiMax is a collection of wireless
wascommunication standards
based
on IEEE 802.16.
 WiMax provides multiple physical layer and media
access control (MAC) options.
 WiMax Forum, established in 2001, is the principal body
responsible to ensure conformity and interoperability
among various commercial vendors.
 These are some of the characteristics of WiMax −
 Broadband wireless access
 Range of 6 miles
 Multilevel encryption available
 Throughput of 72 Mbps
 The main components of a WiMax unit are −
 WiMax Base Station −
 It is a tower similar to mobile towers and connected to Internet
through high
speed wired connection.
 WiMax Subscriber Unit (SU) −
 It is a WiMax version of wireless modem.
 The only difference is that modem is connected to the Internet
through cable connection whereas WiMax SU receives Internet
 Threats and prevention
from
 Viruses
 Worms
 Trojan
horse
 Spams
 Use of Cookies
 Protection using
Firewall
 https
 India IT Act
 Cyber Law
 Cyber Crimes
 IPR issues
 Hacking.
 Network security deals with policies
adopted
by network protect
administrator
the network from unauthorized
to
misuseaccess and
of network resources.
 It also ensures that the authorized
users have adequate access to all
the network resources.
 Virus is a malicious program that
attaches itself to the host program.
 It is designed to infect the host
program and gain control over the
system without the owner's knowledge.
 The virus gets executed each time the
host program is executed.
 Has the tendency to replicate.
 They can spread through external
media such as CDs, browsing infected
internet sites and from email
attachments.
 File Virus: These viruses infect and
replicate when it gets attached to MS-
DOS program files with EXE or COM
extensions.
 Boot sector virus: These viruses infect
the boot sector of floppy disks or
hard drives. Boot sector of a drive
contains program that participates in
booting the system. A virus can infect
the system by replacing or attaching
itself to these programs
 Macro virus: These viruses infect and
replicate using the MS Office program
suite, mainly MS Word and MS Excel.
The virus inserts unwanted words or
 Worm is also a malicious program like
a virus. But unlike viruses, it does not
need to attach itself to a host
program.
A worm works by itself as an
independent object.
 It uses security holes in a computer
networks to replicate itself.
 A copy of the worm scans the network
for another machine that has a specific
security hole.
 It copies itself to the new machine using
the security hole, and then starts
replicating from there, as well.
 A Trojan horse is a program that contains
hidden malicious functions.
 Trojan Horses trick users into installing
them by appearing to be legitimate
programs.
 Once installed on a system, they reveal
their
true nature and cause damage.
 Some Trojan horses will contact a
central server and report back
information such as passwords, user
IDs, and captured keystrokes.
 Trojans lack a replication routine and
thus are not viruses by definition.
 The term spam means endless
repetition of worthless text.
 In other words, unwanted messages
or mails
are known as Spam.
 At times internet is flooded with
multiple copies of the same message, it
is nothing but spam.
 Most spam is commercial advertising.
 In addition to wasting people's time,
spam also eats up a lot of network
bandwidth.
 When the user browses a website, the
web server sends a text file to the web
browser.
 This small text file is a cookie.
 Generally a cookie contains the name of
the website from which it has come from
and a unique ID tag.
 Some cookies last only until the browser
is closed.
 They are not stored on your hard drive.
 They are usually used to track the pages
that you visit so that information can be
customized for you for that visit.
 On the other hand, some cookies are stored
on your hard drive until you delete them or
they reach their expiry date.
 These may, for example, be used to
remember
 A firewall is hardware or software based
network
security system.
 It prevents unauthorized access (hackers,
viruses,
worms etc.) to or from a network.
 Firewalls are used to prevent unauthorized
internet users to access private networks
connected to the Internet.
 All data entering or leaving the Intranet pass
through the firewall, which examines each
packet and blocks those that do not meet the
specified security criteria.
 A firewall examines all traffic routed between
the
two networks to see if it meets certain criteria.
 If it does, it is routed between the networks,
otherwise it is stopped.
 A firewall filters both inbound and outbound
traffic.
 Cybercrime is defined as a crime in which a
computer and internet is used in an
illegitimate way to harm the user.
 Cyber criminals may use computer
technology to access personal information,
business trade secrets, or use the internet for
exploitive or malicious purposes.
 Cybercrimes can be against persons or
against
property or against the government.
 The list of Cyber Crimes includes
 harassment by computer (Cyber Stalking,
defamation)
 pornography
 illegal downloads, plagiarism
 software piracy/counterfeiting, copyright
violation of software, counterfeit hardware,
black market sales of hardware and software,
theft of equipment and new technologies
 fraud (credit card fraud, fraudulent use of ATM
accounts, stock market transfers,
 Cyber law is an attempt to integrate the
challenges presented by human
activity on the internet with legal system
of laws applicable to the physical world.
 There was no statute in India for
governing Cyber Laws involving privacy
issues, jurisdiction issues, intellectual
property rights issues and a number of
other legal questions.
 With the tendency of misusing of
technology, there has arisen a need of
strict statutory laws to regulate the
criminal activities in the cyber world
 To protect the true sense of technology.
"INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ACT,
2000" [ITA-
2000] was enacted by Parliament of India
to protect the field of e-commerce, e-
governance, e-banking as well as penalties
and punishments in the field of Cyber
 The above Act was further amended in the
form of IT Amendment Act, 2008 [ITAA-
 2008].
In the IT Act the word 'computer' and
'computer system' have been so widely
defined and interpreted to mean any
electronic device with data processing
capability, performing computer functions
like logical, arithmetic and memory
functions with input, storage and output
capabilities and therefore any high-end
programmable gadgets like a washing
machine or switches and routers used in a
network can all be brought under the
definition.
 Some of the CYBER OFFENCES UNDER
THE IT ACT
 Tampering with computer source documents-
section
65
 Hacking – Section 66
 The term hacking was first used at M.I.T
during
1950s and 1960s.
 The term was used for people who engaged
themselves in harmless technical
 experiments and fun learning
A computer enthusiast, who usesactivities.
computer
his programming skills to
computer without authorization is
intentionally accessa
known as
hacking.
 The computer enthusiast involved in this activity
is known as a hacker.
 A hacker accesses the computer without
the intention of destroying data or
maliciously harming the computer.
 Another term commonly used with hacking is
cracking.
 Cracking can be defined as a method by which a
person who gains unauthorized access to a
computer with the intention of causing
 Intellectual property rights are the rights
given to an individual over the
invention of their own.
 They usually give the creator an
exclusive right over the use of his/her
creation for a certain period of time
 There are only ways to
three intellectual protect
property
 1. Patents
 2. Trademarks
 3. Copyrights
 A Patent is a term used for a specific
product
designed
 The by is
designer angiven
individual.
exclusive rights over the
patent
for a limited period of time.
 With help of the patent right, the owner can stop
others from making, using or selling the
product design.
 The owner can take a legal action if someone
uses
the patent without his/ her permission

 In order to obtain a patent, the following

conditions
should be met:
 The product should be new
 It should be capableof being made or
used in some
kind of industry
 It should not be a scientific or mathematical
 Trademark can be defined as a name or
a different sign or a device
identifying a product or a service.
 The product or the service is produced or
provided by a specific person or a
company.
 A Trademark is also known as brand
name.
 It should be officially registered and
legally restricted to the use of the
specific person or the company.
 Copyright is the term used for a
written document.
 A legal action can be taken,
if copyrights are violated.
 The following of work can
category be
considered for
copyrights.
 musical works, including any accompanying
words
literary works
 dramatic works, includingany accompanying
music
pantomimes and choreographic works
 pictorial, graphic and sculptural works
 motion pictures and other audio visual works
 sound recordings
 architectural works
 WWW
 Hyper Text Markup Language
 (HTML)
Extensible Markup Language
(XML)
 Domain Names
 URL
 Website
 Web browser
 Web Servers
 Web Hosting
 Web Scripting
– Client side (VB Script, Java Script,
PHP)
 Server side (ASP, JSP, PHP)
 WWW be defined as a hyperte
can retrieval xt
informati system on the
on Berners -Lee is the inventor of
 Tim
Internet.
WWW.
 WWW is the universe of the
 information
WWW of web pages,which
available
consists to on the internet.
interchangeinformation use
HTML on
internet. the
 All the webpages on WWW use HTTP
transfer protocol for any information
with the capability for making hypertext
jumps
 HTML is language the helps in creating
and
designing web content.
 It is a markup language. <>
 It has a variety of tags and attributes
for defining the layout and structure of
the web document.
 It is designed to display the data in
formatted manner.
A HTML document has the
extension .htm or
.html.
 Hypertext is a text which is linked
to another document.
 XML is a markup language like
HTML.
It is designed
 In contrast totoHTML,
carry itorisstore
not
data.
designed to display data.
 Unlike HTML, it does not have
predefined tags.
 It is possible to define new tags in
XML.
 It allows the programmer to use
customized tags.
 XML is case sensitive.
 XML is a W3C recommendation.
 (TheWorld Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is
an international community where Member
organizations, a full-time staff, and the
 XML documents form a tree
structure.

For Example
<root>
<child>
<subchild>.....</
subchild>
</child>
</root>
 The host name or address substring identifies the
host/server
that holds the resource.
 Hosts names are sometimes called domain names.
 For example: www. School.com is a domain name
 Host names are mapped into numeric IP addresses.
 The domain name www.school.com may have IP
address
192.2.100.1.
 An IP address is a binary number that uniquely
identifies computers and other devices on a TCP/IP
network.
 Services in the nameof one host can be provided by
many
servers, which have different IP addresses.
 One server, with one IP address, can provide
services in the
name of many hosts.
 So there is not a one-to-one relationship between host
name and IP address.
 Host names are mapped to IP addresses by a server
known as a
DNS server, or domain name server.
 Web page is an electronic document
designed using
 HTML.
It displays information in textual or graphical
form.
 It may also contain downloadable data files,
audio
files or video files.
 Traversal from one webpage to another web
page is possible through hyperlinks.
 A web page can be classified into two
types:
 Static web page: A web page which displays
same kind of information whenever a user
visits it, is known as a static web page. A static
web page generally has.htm or
.html as extension
 Dynamic web page: An interactive web page is a
dynamic webpage. A dynamic web page uses
scripting languages to display changing content
on the web page. Such a page generally has
php, .asp," or .jsp as extension.
  A scripting is a
language programming
languagewhich can languages.
integrated with other be embedded
 Some of the most widely or used scripting
languages are JavaScript, VBScript, PHP,
Perl, Python , Ruby, and ASP.
 They have been used extensively to
create dynamic web pages.
 Client-Side
Scripting
 The contents change in response to an action
done by the user, for example a click from the
mouse or a key press from a keyboard
action.
 Such pages use client-side scripting.
 In this technology, the content is generated
on the
user's local computer.
 VB Script and Java Script are examples of
client-side scripting languages.
 Server -Side Scripting
 Some web pages use applications running on
the
server to generate the web content.
 Such pages use server-side scripting
language.
 Web page display the current time and date,
 Web browser is software program to
navigate the web pages on the
internet.
A bowser interprets the coding
language of the web page and displays
it in graphic form.
 A web browser allows anyone to access
the web without even knowing
commands used in software languages
to design a web page.
 Internet works on client -server
model.
A web browser is a client which
requests the information from the
web server.

 Web address of the web page written on the
address bar of the browser is known as
the uniform resource locator (URL).
 A URL is a formatted text string used to
a network resource on the Internet.
identify
 Network resources are files that can be
plain Web pages, text documents,
graphics, downloadable files, services or
programs.
 Every network resource on the web has a
unique URL.
 The URL text string consists of three
parts:
 Network Protocol
 Host name or address
 File or resource location
The text string of a URL has the following format:
 A Web server is a computer or a group of
computers that
stores web pages on the internet.
 It works on client/server model.
 It delivers the requested web page to web
browser.
 Web servers use special programs such as
Apache or IIS (Internet Information Services )
to deliver web pages over the http protocol.
 Each server has a unique IP address and domain
name.
 In order to access a webpage, the user writes the
URL of
the site on the address bar of the browser .
 The machine on which the browser is running
sends a request to the IP address of the
machine running the web server for that page.
 Once the web server receives that request, it
sends the page content back to the IP address of
the computer asking for it.
 The web browser then translates that content
 Web hosting is the process of
uploading/saving the web content
on a web server to make it available
on WWW.
 In case a individual or a company wants
to make its website available on the
internet, it should be hosted on a web
server.
 The term web 2.0 was givenby
O'Reilly Media in 2004.
 Web 2.0 refers to new
generation of dynamic and
 interactive
Web 2.0 websites.
websites uses a new
programming language called AJAX
(Asynchronous JavaScript and XML).
 AJAX helps a dynamic website
connect to the web server and
download small amount of data based
on the interaction with the user.
 In this technology only the part of the
website
which is updated is reloaded.
 The entire page does not get
reloaded each
 Applications supported by
web 2.0 are as followings:
 blogging
 social bookmarking
 RSS (Really Simple Syndication)
 wikis and other collaborative
applications
 interactive encyclopaedias and
dictionaries
 Advanced Gaming
 E-Commerce or Electronics Commerce
is a methodology of modern business,
which addresses the requirements of
business organizations.
 It can be broadly defined as the process
of buying or selling of goods or
services using an electronic medium
such as the Internet.
 E-commerce sites use electronic
payment, where electronic payment refers
to paperless monetary transactions.
 Electronic payment has revolutionized the
business processing by reducing the
paperwork, transaction costs, and
labor cost.
 Being user friendly and less time-
consuming than manual processing, it
helps business organization to expand its
 market reach/expansion.
Listed below some of the modes
electronic paymentsof−
are
 Credit Card
 Debit Card
 Smart Card
 E-Money
 Electronic Fund Transfer
(EFT)
 Mobile banking is a service provided by a
bank or other financial institution
that allows to its
customers financi
transactions
conduct remotely using al
device
a such as a smartphone or tablet. mobil
 Unlike the related internet banking it euses
software, usually called an app, provided
by the financial institution for the purpose.
 Mobile banking is usually available on a
24-hour
basis.
 Some financial institutions have restrictions
on which accounts may be accessed
through mobile banking, as well as a limit
on the amount that can be transacted.
 Mobile banking is dependent on the
availability of an internet or data
connection to the mobile device.