POMG6713

Operations Management

Session 5
Quality Control

9-1
Learning Objectives
List and briefly explain the elements of
the control process
Explain how control charts are used to
monitor a process, and the concepts that
underlie their use
Use and interpret control charts
Explain about Run tests
Use Process Capability

9-2
Quality control A process that evaluates output relative to a standard
and takes corrective action when output doesn’t meet standards.

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

Statistical evaluation of the output of a
process
Helps us to decide if a process is “in
control” or if corrective action is needed
SPC involves periodically taking samples
of process output and computing sample
statistics: 9-3
Process Variability
 Variation
o Random (common cause) variation:
o Natural variation in the output of a process, created
by countless minor factors
o Assignable (special cause) variation:
o A variation whose cause can be identified.
o A non-random variation

Issue of Process Control

o Are the variations random? If nonrandom variation
is present, the process is said to be unstable.
o Sample statistics are used to judge the randomness
of process variation
9-4
Control Charts: The Voice of the Process

Control Chart
 A time ordered plot of representative sample
statistics obtained from an ongoing process
(e.g. sample means), used to distinguish
between random and nonrandom variability
 Control limits
The dividing lines between random and non-
random deviations from the mean of the
distribution
Upper and lower control limits define the
range of acceptable variation

9-5
Types of Data
Variables Attributes
• Characteristics that • Defect-related
can take any real characteristics
value such as weight, • Classify products as
speed, height, or either good or bad or
strength count defects
• May be in whole or in • Categorical or
fractional numbers discrete random
• Continuous random variables
variables • Does not address
degree of failure
Control Charts for Data Types

Data

Variables Attribute

- X bar chart:
a. Known standard deviation - P chart
b. Unknown standard deviation - c chart
- R chart
Control Charts for Attributes

Attributes generate data that are

counted.
o p-Chart
 Control chart used to monitor the proportion of
defectives in a process
o c-Chart
 Control chart used to monitor the number of
defects per unit

9-8
Use a p-chart:

When observations can be placed into

two categories.
 Good or bad
 Pass or fail
 Operate or don’t operate
When the data consists of multiple
samples of several observations each

9-9
p-chart Control Limits

Total number of defectives

p
Total number of observatio ns
p (1  p )
ˆ p 
n
UCL p  p  z (ˆ p )
LCL p  p  z (ˆ p )

9-10
p-chart Example

An inspector counted the number of defective monthly billing statements of a

telephone company in each of 20 samples. Using the following information,
construct a control chart that will describe 99.7 percent of the chance variation
in the process when the process is in control. Each sample contained 100
statements.

9-11
p-chart Example
Solution
To find z, divide 0.9974 by 2 to obtain 0.4987, and using that value, refer to
Appendix B, Table A to find z 3.00.

9-12
Process is out of control
9-13
c-chart
Use only when the number of occurrences
per unit of measure can be counted; non-
occurrences cannot be counted.
 Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item
 Cracks or faults per unit of distance
 Breaks or Tears per unit of area
 Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume
 Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

UCLc c  z c
LCLc c  z c
9-14
c-chart Example
A cab company receives several complaints per day about the
behaviour of its drivers. Over a nine-day period, the owner
received the following numbers of calls from irate
passengers: 3,0,8,9,6,7,4,9,8, for a total of 54 complaints. He
wants to compute 99.7% control chart limits.

Solution:
c = 54 complaints/9 days = 6 complaints/day

UCLc = c + 3 c LCLc = c - 3 c
=6+3 6 =6-3 6
= 13.35 =0
Is the process in control? 9-15
Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are
measured
 Mean control charts
Used to monitor the central tendency of a process.
 “x- bar” charts

 Range control charts

Used to monitor the process dispersion
 R charts

9-16
Establishing Control Limits (known
standard deviation)
k

R
k

 xi i

x i 1 R  i 1
k k
where where
x Average of sample means R Average of sample ranges
x i mean of sample i Ri Range of sample i
k number of samples

9-17
Establishing Control Limits (known standard deviation)

x bar chart

9-18
X bar chart Example 1
A quality inspector took five samples, each with four observations ( n
= 4), of the length of time for glue to dry. The analyst computed the
mean of each sample and then computed the grand mean. All values
are in minutes. Use this information to obtain three-sigma (i.e., z =
3) control limits for means of future times. It is known from previous
experience that the standard deviation of the process is 0.02 minute.
a. Use this information to obtain three-sigma (i.e., z = 3) control
limits for means of future times.
b. Is the process (time for glue to dry) normal? Why?
c. For what percent of the products (glue) it takes more than 12.11
minutes dry? More than 12.123 minutes to dry? Between 12.09 to
12.12 minutes to dry? (part c of this question aims to show how to
use normal distribution)

9-19
X bar chart Example 1: Solution to part a

Step 1: calculate the mean of the mean

o r
l es
p l e?
Step 2: Calculate upper and lower limit a m p le?
f s am mp
r o e s sa
b e th e
m o f t h
nu ze o f
= s i ze
n he s i
t he
= t 9-20
n
Solution to part b
12.15

12.14

12.13

12.12
12.12 12.12
12.11
12.11 X bar
12.10
12.10 12.10 UCL
12.09
LCL
12.08

12.07

12.06

12.05
1 2 3 4 5

Process is in control. Why? 9-21

9-22
9-23
9-24
9-25
X-Bar Chart: Control Limits (unknown
standard deviation)
Used to monitor the central tendency of a
process
x  chart Control Limits
UCLx  x  A2 R

LCLx  x  A2 R
where
A2 a control chart factor based on

A2= A factor from Table 10.3

R¯= Average of sample ranges

9-26
Factors for Three Sigma Control
Charts

9-27
Range Chart: Control Limits
Used to monitor process dispersion

R Chart Control Limits

UCLR D4 R
LCLR D3 R
where
D3 a control chart factor based on sample size, n
D4 a control chart factor based on sample size, n

9-28
Range Chart: Control Limits:
Example 3

 Consider the information in Example 2.

Setup R chart
Solution:
UCL = 2.28(0.59) =1.35
LCL = 0(0.59)
1.6
=0
1.4

1.2

1
1.09
0.8699
0.8
999999 R values
99999 UCL(R bar)
0.6 0.6 LCL(R bar)
0.4

0.2 0.25 0.1300

000000
0
1 2 3 4 5 00001

Process is under control 9-29

Summary of X bar and R chart

9-30
Summary of Control Charts

9-31
Process Capability
 Once a process has been determined to be
stable, it is necessary to determine if the
process is capable of producing output that is
within an acceptable range
 Tolerances or specifications
 Range of acceptable values established by engineering
design or customer requirements
 Process variability
 Natural or inherent variability in a process
 Process capability
 The inherent variability of process output (process width)
relative to the variation allowed by the design
specification (specification width)
9-32
Process Capability

Lower Upper
Specification Specification Lower Upper
Specification Specification

Process variability (width)

Process variability (width)
exceeds specifications
matches specifications width

Lower Upper
Specification Specification

Process variability (width) is less

than the specification width

9-33
Cp Process Capability Ratio

UTL - LTL
Cp 
6
where
UTL upper tolerance (specification) limit
LTL lower tolerance(specification) limit

For a process to be deemed to be capable, it must have a capability

index of at least 1.00.

Cp = 1  barely capable  2700 parts per million (ppm)

Cp = 1.33 30 ppm

9-34
 Cpk Process Capability Index

Used when a process is not centered at its

target, or nominal, value

C pk min C pu , C pl 
 UTL  x x  LTL 
min  , 
 3 3 

9-35
Process Capability Example
A manager has the option of using any one of three machines
for a job. The processes and their standard deviations are
listed below. Determine which machines are capable if the
specifications are 10.00 mm and 10.80 mm.

Solution:

9-36
9-37
Question

9-38