Essential Concepts in IoT Sensing and Actuation

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 Overview of the Seminar

Introduction to IoT Sensing and Actuation

Sensors
✔ Sensor Characteristics
✔ Sensorial Deviations
✔ Sensing Types
✔ Sensing Considerations

Actuators
✔ Actuator Types
✔ Actuator Characteristics

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 IoT Sensing & Actuation

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 IoT Sensing & Actuation
• IoT applications involves sensing in one or the other form.
• All the applications in IoT, consumer IoT, an industrial IoT, or hobby-based deployments of IoT
solutions - sensing forms the first step.
• Actuation forms the final step
• The sensing and actuation is based on the process of transduction.
• Transduction is the process of energy conversion.
• Transducers take energy in any form - electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound etc. & convert
it into other forms like electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound etc.
• Sensors and actuators are deemed as transducers.

• E.g., in a public announcement (PA) system, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals,
amplified by an amplifier system (a process). A loudspeaker (output device) outputs this into audible sounds by converting
the amplified electrical signals back into sound waves
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 Differences between Transducers, Sensors, and Actuators

Parameter Transducer Sensor Actuator

Converts energy from Converts various forms of energy Converts electrical signals into
Definition
one form to another. into electrical signals various forms of energy.

Represent a sensor as
Domain It is an input transducer. It is an output transducer
well as an actuator.

Work as a sensor or an Used for converting signals

Used for quantifying environmental
Function actuator but not into proportional mechanical or
stimuli into signals.
simultaneously. electrical outputs

Humidity sensors, Temperature

Any sensor or
Examples sensors, Manometers, Gas sensors Motors, Pumps etc.
actuator
etc.

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 What is the main function of a transducer?

a) Convert energy from one form to another

b) Store energy for later use

c) Generate electrical signals from heat

d) Measure changes in light intensity

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 What is the main function of a transducer?

a) Convert energy from one form to another

b) Store energy for later use

c) Generate electrical signals from heat

d) Measure changes in light intensity

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 Sensors

• Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the ambient changes in

their environment.

• They generate responses to external or physical phenomenon and their conversion into

electrical signals.

• E.g., Heat is converted to electrical signals in a temperature sensor

Atmospheric pressure is converted to electrical signals in a barometer.

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 Sensors

A sensor is defined as a device, helps to detect any changes in physical quantity like pressure, force or
electrical quantity etc.
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Industrial IoT Sensor Systems
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Industrial IoT Sensor Systems
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 Outline of a Sensing Operation

• Temperature sensor keeps on checking an environment for changes.

• In the event of a fire, the temperature of the environment goes up.

• Temperature sensor senses this change in the temperature of the room and communicates this information

to a remote monitor via the processor

A sensor
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 Classification of Sensors
The sensors are classified based on;

1. Power requirements

1. Active Sensor
2. Passive Sensor

2. Sensor output

1. Analog Sensor
2. Digital Sensor

3. Property to be measured

1. Scalar
2. Vector
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 Classification of Sensors

1. Power requirements

1. Active Sensor
2. Passive Sensor

1. Active Sensor: Do not require an external power source for their functioning.

E.g.: LiDAR (Light detection and ranging), Photoconductive cell, piezoelectric crystal etc.

2. Passive Sensor: Requires an external power source for their functioning.

E.g.: RTDs: Thermocouple

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 Classification of Sensors

1. Power requirements

1. Active Sensor
2. Passive Sensor

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 Classification of Sensors

1. Power requirements

1. Active Sensor
2. Passive Sensor

Thermocouple, Piezoelectric sensor etc. RTDs: Strain Gauge

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 Classification of Sensors
2. Sensor output

1. Analog Sensor
2. Digital Sensor

• Analogue sensors: Produce an analog output (continuous function of time).

• Digital Sensors: Work with discrete or digital data. Typically, binary output signals in the form of a logic 1
or logic 0 for ON or OFF.

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 Classification of Sensors
3. Property to be measured

1. Scalar
2. Vector

• Scalar: These sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.

• The output is in the form of a signal or voltage.

• E.g. colour, pressure, temperature, strain, gas, smoke, strain etc.

• Vector: Sensors are affected by both magnitude & direction and/or orientation of the property being measured.

• Velocity require additional information besides magnitude for completely describe the information.

• E.g. Sound sensor, image sensor, velocity sensor, acceleration sensor etc.

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 The functional blocks of a typical sensor node in IoT

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 Which type of sensor does not require an external

power source?

a) Passive sensor

b) Analog sensor

c) Digital sensor

d) Active sensor

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 Which type of sensor does not require an external power source?

a) Passive sensor

b) Analog sensor

c) Digital sensor

d) Active sensor

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 Sensor Characteristics
1. Sensor Resolution

• The slightest/smallest change in the input (measurable quantity) that the sensor can detect.

• For digital sensors, the smallest change in the digital output

E.g. Temperature Sensor A can detect change in temperature up to 0:5°C;

Temperature Sensor B can detect change in temperature up to 0:25°C

Therefore, the resolution of sensor B is higher than the resolution of sensor A.

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 Sensor Characteristics
2. Sensor Accuracy

• Accuracy is the ability of a sensor to measure the changes in the environment of a system close to

its true value (Standard).

• E. g Weight sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg.

• We can say, this sensor is 99:98% accurate, with an error rate of 0:02%.

3. Sensor Precision

• Precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement.

• Exactly the same value were measured a no. of times (trials).

• An ideal sensor will provide am output exactly the same value every time.

E.g. If a pressure of exactly 150 mm Hg is applied to a sensor. Even if the applied pressure never changes, the

output values
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 Sensor Characteristics
4. Range

• Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the sensor can actually

sense.

• Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.

• e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c

5. Sensitivity

• The ratio of incremental change in the response of the system wrt incremental change in input.

• It is the smallest amount of difference in quantity (i/p) that will change the instrument’s reading.

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In the context of sensor characteristics, what does 'resolution' refer to?

a) The total range of a sensor

b) The smallest detectable change in input

c) The accuracy of the sensor's output

d) The speed at which the sensor operates

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In the context of sensor characteristics, what does 'resolution' refer to?

a) The total range of a sensor

b) The smallest detectable change in input

c) The accuracy of the sensor's output

d) The speed at which the sensor operates

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 Sensorial Deviations / Errors

• Sensor deviations are referred to as errors in sensors.

• Sensing in IoT is non-critical, where minor deviations in sensor outputs rarely changes the nature of the

undertaken tasks (applications).

• The critical applications of IoT, such as healthcare, industrial process monitoring, etc., require sensors

with high-quality measurement capabilities.

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 Sensorial Deviations / Errors

1. Full Scale Range (Sensor limits): When sensor’s output is beyond its maximum and minimum design

capacity, the sensor output is truncated to its maximum or minimum value.

• The measurement range between minimum and maximum values is referred to as the full-scale range of

the sensor.

Example:

Let’s say you have a temperature sensor with a full-scale range of -50°C to 150°C.

✔ If the temperature is within the range (e.g., 25°C), the sensor will output the correct value.

✔ If the temperature falls below -50°C (e.g., -60°C), the sensor will truncate the output to its minimum

value, which is -50°C. It cannot measure any value lower than that.

✔ If the temperature rises above 150°C (e.g., 160°C), the sensor will output the maximum value, 150°C,
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even though the actual temperature is higher. It cannot measure anything beyond 150°C.
 Sensorial Deviations / Errors

2. Offset / Bias: If the output signal is not zero when the measured property(i/p) is zero, the sensor has an

offset or bias error.

Example: Weighing Scale

✔ Ideal Condition: When there is no weight on the weighing machine, it should display 0 kg.

✔ Offset/Bias Error: However, if it already shows 2 kg before you place anything on it. This means the

machine has an offset error or bias of 2 kg.

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 Sensorial Deviations / Errors

3. Non Linearity: If the sensor output is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity.

Example: Assume the output might increase by 1 volt for every 10°C. So, if the temperature goes up by

10°C, the output should increase by exactly 1 volt.

Linear Non-Linear

0°C → 0 volts 0°C → 0 volts (correct)

10°C → 1 volt 10°C → 1 volt (correct)
20°C → 2 volts 20°C → 2.1 volts (slightly off)
30°C → 3 volts 30°C → 3.2 volts (more off)
40°C → 4 volts 40°C → 4.5 volts (significantly off)

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 Sensorial Deviations / Errors

4. Dynamic Error: The delay or deviation in the sensor's reading caused by the rapid change in the
measured property is called a dynamic error.

Example: Thermometer measuring the temperature of water being heated quickly on a stove.
Ideal Condition: The thermometer would respond instantly to changes in water temperature. If the
water temperature suddenly jumps from 25°C to 75°C, the thermometer should immediately show
75°C without any delay.

Dynamic Error:
But in real condition, If the temperature of the water changes rapidly from 25°C to 75°C, the
thermometer might take a few seconds to "catch up" and show the correct temperature. During this
time, the thermometer could show 40°C, 50°C, or 60°C, instead of the correct temperature 75°C.

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 Sensorial Deviations / Errors

5. Drift: If the output signal of a sensor changes slowly and independently over time of the measured
property.
Example:
✔ You place a 2 kg weight on the scale.
✔ Initially, the scale shows 2 kg, which is correct.
✔ After some time, the scale starts to slowly show higher or lower values, like 2.1 kg, 2.2 kg, or 1.9 kg,
even though the object has not changed its weight.
✔ The change is not related to the weight but is caused by the sensor itself, either due to temperature,
aging components, or other environmental factors.

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 Sensorial Deviations / Errors

6. Hysteresis Error: if a sensor’s output varies/deviates due to deviations in the sensor’s previous input
values, it is referred to as hysteresis error.
Example: Magnetic Door Sensor - You have a magnetic sensor installed on the door.
Opening the Door:
✔ When the door is closed, the magnet is right next to the sensor, and the sensor indicates that the
door is closed. As you open the door, when the magnet moves 5 cm away from the sensor, the
sensor correctly detects that the door is open.
Closing the Door:
✔ Now, you start closing the door again. But when the door gets back to 5 cm away from the sensor,
the sensor does not immediately detect that the door is closed. Instead, the sensor only recognizes
the door as closed when the magnet gets to 3 cm from the sensor.

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 Sensorial Deviations: Digital Sensors

1. Quantization Error: If the digital output of a sensor is an approximation of the measured property.
• Defined as the difference between the actual analog signal and its closest digital approximation during
the sampling stage of the ADC.
Example: Imagine you are using a digital thermometer that converts an analog temperature reading into a
digital value.
✔ Measuring the Temperature: The actual temperature is 22.3°C.The sensor converts this analog value
to the nearest digital representation. Due to limitations in its resolution, the sensor rounds the
temperature to 22°C (its closest available digital value).
✔ Quantization Error: The quantization error is the difference between the actual temperature (22.3°C)
and the digitally rounded temperature (22°C).In this case, the quantization error is 0.3°C.

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 Sensorial Deviations: Digital Sensors

• Dynamic Error caused due to mishandling of sampling frequencies can give rise to aliasing errors.

Example of Capturing fast moving object with Digital Camera:

✔ Imagine you are using a digital camera to photograph a race car moving at high speed.
✔ The camera has a certain frame rate, which is the frequency at which it captures images.
✔ If the camera captures images at 30 frames per second (fps) but the race car is moving so fast the
images may not show the car in its true position.
✔ This can result in the car appearing to be in multiple places at once or even creating an illusion that it
is moving backwards.
✔ The fast motion is not sampled adequately, leading to an effect called motion blur.

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Which error occurs if a sensor's output changes slowly over time, independent of the input?

a) Hysteresis

b) Drift

c) Offset

d) Quantization

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Which error occurs if a sensor's output changes slowly over time, independent of the input?

a) Hysteresis

b) Drift

c) Offset

d) Quantization

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 Sensing Types

Sensing can be divided into four different categories based on the nature of the environment

being sensed and the sensors being used;

1. Scalar sensing

2. Multimedia sensing

3. Hybrid sensing

4. Virtual sensing

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 Sensing Types
1. Scalar sensing

• Encompasses the sensing of features that can be quantified by measuring changes in the amplitude
(magnitude) of the measured values with respect to time.
• Measuring the changes in their values with time provides enough information about these quantities
• E.g., Ambient temperature, current, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light, humidity
• A scalar temperature sensing of a fire detection event is shown in Fig.

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 Sensing Types
2. Multimedia sensing

• Encompasses the sensing of features that have a spatial variance property associated with the property
of temporal variance.
• Multimedia sensors are used for capturing the changes in amplitude of a quantifiable property
concerning space (spatial) as well as time (temporal).
E.g. Images, direction, flow, speed, acceleration, sound, force, mass, energy, and momentum
• A camera-based multimedia sensing using surveillance as an example is shown in Fig.

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 Sensing Types
3. Hybrid sensing

• The act of using scalar & multimedia sensing at the same time is referred to as hybrid sensing.
• Various sensors are employed (scalar & multimedia sensors) to measure the various properties of the
environment at any instant of time, and temporally map the collected information to generate new
information.
• E.g: Smart parking systems, traffic management systems etc.
• Fig. shows an example of hybrid sensing, where a camera and a temperature sensor are collectively
used to detect and confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.

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 Sensing Types
3. Hybrid sensing

Example: Agricultural field.

• It is required to measure the soil conditions at regular intervals of time to determine plant health.
• Soil moisture & temperature sensors are deployed underground to estimate the soil’s water retention
capacity and the moisture being held by the soil at any instant of time.
• This setup only determines whether the plant is getting enough water or not.
• There are other factors besides water availability, which may affect a plant’s health.
• The inclusion of a camera sensor with the plant, will determine the actual condition of a plant by
determining the colour of leaves.

• This information from soil moisture, temperature, and the camera sensor will be able to collectively
determine a plant’s health at any instant of time.

.
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 Sensing Types
4. Virtual sensing

• There is a need for very dense and large-scale deployment of sensor nodes spread over a large area for
monitoring of parameters.
• E.g. Agriculture
• The parameters being measured, are soil moisture, soil temperature, and water level, do not show significant
spatial variations.
• Sensors are deployed in the fields of farmer A, the measurements from the sensors will provide almost
concise measurements of his neighbour B’s fields; (fields which are surrounding A’s fields).
• If the data from A’s field is digitized using an IoT infrastructure and this system advises him regarding the
appropriate watering, fertilizer, and pesticide regimen for his crops, this advisory can also be used by B for
maintaining his crops.
• In short, A ’s sensors are being used for actual measurement of parameters; whereas virtual data is being
used for advising B.
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 Sensing Considerations

• The choice of sensors in an IoT sensor node is critical and can either make or break the

feasibility of an IoT deployment.

• The major factors influence the choice of sensors in IoT-based sensing solutions:

1. Sensing range

2. Accuracy & precision

3. Energy

4. Device size

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 Sensing Considerations

1. Sensing Range

• The sensing range of a sensor may be used to signify the upper and lower bounds of a sensor’s

measurement range.

Example: Ultrasonic Distance Sensor:

Sensing Range: 2 cm to 400 cm.
The ultrasonic sensor emits sound waves and measures the time it takes for the echo to return. It can
measure distances within this range, and anything beyond 400 cm or closer than 2 cm will not be
accurately detected.

• As the complexity of the sensor and its sensing range goes up, its cost significantly increases.

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 Sensing Considerations
2. Accuracy & Precision

• Accuracy and precision of measurements provided by a sensor are critical in deciding the operations of
specific functional processes.
• Consumer sensors are low on requirements & their performance is limited to regular application domains.

Example:

• A standard temperature sensor is not suitable for industrial processes.

• Regular temperature sensors have a very low-temperature sensing range & relatively low accuracy and

precision.

• The industrial applications requires precision of up to 3 - 4 decimal places

• Industrial sensors are very sophisticated, and are very costly.

• Industrial sensors have very high accuracy and precision, even under harsh operating conditions.
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 Sensing Considerations

3. Energy

• The energy consumed by a sensor / sensor node is crucial to determine the lifetime of that solution and

the estimated cost of its deployment.

• If the sensor / sensor node is energy inefficient, it requires replenishment of its energy sources

frequently, the effort in maintaining the solution and its cost goes up & its deployment feasibility goes

down.

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 Sensing Considerations
4. Device Size

• Modern-day IoT applications have a wide penetration in all domains of life.

• Most of the applications of IoT require sensing solutions which are so small that they do not hinder any of

the regular activities.

• Larger the size of a sensor node, larger is the obstruction caused by it, higher is the cost and energy

requirements, and lesser is its demand for the bulk of the IoT applications.

Example: Human activity detector.

• If the detection unit is large / bulky to be carried, cause hindrance to regular movements, the demand for this solution

would be low.

• The wearable sensors are highly energy-efficient & small in size.

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 Actuators

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 ACTUATORS
• An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a
mechanism or system. E.g.: opening a valve.
• An actuator requires a control device (controlled by control signal) and a source of energy.
• The control signal may be electric voltage or current, pneumatic, or hydraulic fluid pressure, or
human power.
• The control device is usually a valve. When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds by
converting the source's energy into mechanical motion.

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Outline of a simple actuation mechanism
 Actuator Types

Broadly, actuators can be divided into following classes:

1. Hydraulic

2. Pneumatic

3. Electrical

4. Thermal / Magnetic

5. Mechanical

6. Soft

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 Actuator Types

19-10-2024 Fig. shows some of the commonly used actuators in IoT applications 52
 Actuator Types
Hydraulic Actuator

• A works on the principle of compression and decompression of fluids.

• These actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads through the use of hydraulic

power derived from fluids.

• The mechanical motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is converted to either linear, rotary, or

oscillatory motion.

• Limited acceleration: They don’t move very fast, so they’re not good for tasks that need quick

movements.

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 Actuator Types
Pneumatic Actuator

• Pneumatic actuators use the energy of compressed air to generate rotary and linear movements to

operate valves and dampers

• Characteristics: Quick response to starting and stopping signals.

• Small pressure changes can be used for generating large forces. E.g. Pneumatic brakes.

• Pneumatic actuators are responsible for converting pressure into force.

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 Actuator Types
Electrical Actuator

• Electric actuators convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.

• Applications: Valve operation, cutting equipment, food and beverage manufacturing, and material

handling.

• Easy to maintain and offer a high level of precision.

• Not suited for all environments and need supervision for overheating tendencies.

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 Actuator Types
Thermal / Magnetic Actuator

• Thermal or magnetic energy is used.

• Have a very high power density and are compact, lightweight, and economical.

Example: Shape memory alloys (SMAs).

• These actuators do not require electricity for actuation.

• They are not affected by vibration and can work with liquid or gases.

• Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of magnetic actuators.

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 Actuator Types
Mechanical Actuator

• In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear motion.

• The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, etc. are necessary for these actuators to operate.

• These actuators can be easily used in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators.

• They can also work in a standalone mode.

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Driving a pump actuator device (Linear) Rotary Actuator
 Actuator Types
Soft Actuator
• Polymer-based consists of elastomeric polymers, used as embedded fixtures in flexible materials such
as cloth, paper, fiber, particles, etc.
• The conversion of molecular level microscopic changes into macroscopic deformations is the primary
working principle.
• These actuators have a high stake in modern-day robotics. They are designed to handle fragile
objects such as agricultural fruit harvesting, or performing precise operations like manipulating the
internal organs during robot-assisted surgeries.

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What type of actuator uses compressed air to generate movement?

a) Hydraulic actuator

b) Thermal actuator

c) Pneumatic actuator

d) Electric actuator

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What type of actuator uses compressed air to generate movement?

a) Hydraulic actuator

b) Thermal actuator

c) Pneumatic actuator

d) Electric actuator

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 Actuator Characteristics

• The selection of actuators is crucial in an IoT deployment, where a control mechanism is required after

sensing and processing of the information obtained from the sensed environment.

• Actuators perform the physically heavier tasks in an IoT deployment; tasks which require moving or

changing the orientation of physical objects, changing the state of objects, etc.

• The correct choice of actuators is necessary for the long-term sustenance and continuity of operations, as

well as for increasing the lifetime of the actuators themselves.

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 Actuator Characteristics

• A set of four characteristics can define all the actuators:

1. Weight

2. Power Rating

3. Torque to Weight Ratio

4. Stiffness and Compliance

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 Actuator Characteristics

1. Weight: The physical weight of actuators limits its application scope.

Example

• Use of heavier actuators is generally preferred for industrial applications and applications

requiring no mobility of the IoT deployment.

• Lightweight actuators typically find common usage in portable systems in vehicles, drones,

and home IoT applications.

• Heavier actuators also have selective usage in mobile systems, for e.g., landing gears and

engine motors in aircraft.

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 Actuator Characteristics

2. Power Rating
• Helps in deciding the nature of the application.
• Power rating defines the minimum and maximum operating power an actuator can safely withstand without
damage to itself.
• Generally, it is indicated as the power-to-weight ratio for actuators.
Example
• Smaller servo motors used in hobby projects, have a maximum rating of 5 VDC, 500 mA, suitable for an
operations-driven battery-based power source.
• Exceeding this limit might be detrimental to the performance of the actuator and may cause burnout of the
motor.
• Servo motors in larger applications have a rating of 460 VAC, 2.5 A, requires standalone power supply
systems for operations.

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 Actuator Characteristics

3. Torque to Weight Ratio

• The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an instrument/device is referred to

as its torque/weight ratio.

• This indicates the sensitivity of the actuator.

• Higher is the weight of the moving part; lower will be its torque to weight ratio for a given

power.

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 Actuator Characteristics

4. Stiffness and Compliance:

• The resistance of a material against deformation is known as its stiffness.
• Compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness.
• Stiffness can be directly related to the modulus of elasticity of that material.
• Stiff systems are considered more accurate than compliant systems as they have a faster
response to the change in load applied to it.

Example
• Hydraulic systems are considered as stiff and non-compliant, whereas pneumatic systems
are considered as compliant.

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