Memory Elements

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 Outline
Overview of Memories
Memory Classification
Magnetic Storages
Optical Data Storages
Semiconductor Memories: ROM
Semiconductor Memories: RAM
Types of RAM: SRAM & DRAM
SRAM
DRAM
Summary

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 Memory
Why is the memory required ?
storage?? Later use, Break the problem in time domain

How the data can be stored ?

Charge, voltage, light, fluid cells, mechanical action,
elastic

What is the choice criteria ?

Basic : Reliability, Size, Speed, Power, Type of use
Sec. : Package type, cost, availability, scalability,
voltage compatibility(3.3/5v)

What are the primary components ?

Primary: Storage element, address decoder, data lines
Variables: data multiplexers, sense amplifiers,
voltage equalizers, refresh circuits
 Classification

Principle Operation Application Access

Semiconductor Read/Write Sequential

Secondary
Magnetic Read Only Primary Random
Cache
Optical FIFO Associative
Stack
 Magnetic Storages
• The principle is to code or decode the direction of
magnetic field applied to given domain.

• The storage device has disk or tape of magnetic

material which can retain the magnetic field
applied.

• It has a head which writes/reads to/from the

magnetic material.

• Requires high precision mechanical assembly to

shift the domains under head.
 Magnetic Storages Cont..
The devices available are :

Floppy disk : Has a thin circular film of the magnetic material.

Restricted amount of data storage possible.

Magnetic Tape: Thin long tape wound around a reel that

rotates to give different domains a exposure to
head.

Hard Disk : The disk rather thick magnetic material platter

where the read write head places itself against
the segment to read or write.
 Optical Data Storage

• Bar Code
• CD-ROM
• CD-R (recordable)
• CD-RW (rewritable)
• Digital Versatile Discs (DVD)
 Bar Code
• Each number from 0-9 is represented by a
sequence of bars and spaces of characteristic
widths from 1 to 4 units.
• When a laser is shone on the bar code the black
strips reflect less light than the white strips, the
differences in reflectivity across the bar code is
interpreted by the computer in terms of the data.
 CD-ROM
Preparation :
• A high power infra-red laser is used to burn a
sequence of holes that represent the data along a
continuous spiral track in a coated glass master
disc.
• A mould is made of the master disc and is injected
with a polycarbonate resin to form a CD.
• A reflective aluminium backing and a protective
coating are then added.
 CD-ROM Cont...
Reading Data :
• A CD-ROM is read by shining a low powered laser
through the polycarbonate substrate as the disc
spins under the sensor head.
• Light reflected off a land is read by a photosensor,
whereas light reflected from a pit is scattered and
does not reach the photo-sensor.
• The measured changes in the reflected intensity are
interpreted in terms of 0’s and 1’s.
 CD-ROM Cont...
CD-Recordable (CD-R):
• A basic CD-R is a version of a CD in which it is
possible to write to it. It differs from a CD-ROM in
that the aluminium layer is replaced by a gold layer
and between the gold and the polycarbonate there
is a layer of a dye.
• To write to the CD a higher powered laser is used to
heat up the dye. This causes a change in its
chemical structure which makes the dye opaque i.e.
light can no longer pass through it and be reflected
off the gold backing
 CD-ROM Cont...
CD-Rewritable (CD-RW) :

• In a CD-RW the dye used in a CD-R is replaced by

an alloy of Ag, In, Sb, Te. The alloy has 2 stable
states.
• One of these is crystalline and reflects light well, the
other is amorphous (i.e. does not have a regular
atomic structure) and reflects light poorly.
 CD-ROM Cont...
Write :
A high powered laser can be used to melt the
crystalline alloy and produce the amorphous form.

Erase :
A laser of less power will melt the amorphous form
which then recrystallizes into the crystalline form of the
alloy.
 CD-ROM Cont...
Digital Versatile Discs (DVD) :
• DVD has a semi-reflective layer sandwiched
between two polycarbonate substrates.
• Each containing data encoded as sequences of
pits and lands, and with the whole disc backed by a
layer of reflective Al.
• Which layer of data is read can be controlled by
focusing the laser on one of the layers.
 Solid State Drive (SSD)
• Is a new alternative to Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
based secondary storage in computer systems
• It consists of interconnected flash memory chips
• It is built entirely out of semiconductors (hence
the name solid state) and does not have any
moving parts
• It is more expensive than HDD of same capacity,
but is more reliable, rugged, compact and faster
in data access speed
Solid State Drive (SSD)
 Flash Drive (Pen Drive)
Flash drive is a compact device of the size of a pen
• Comes in various shapes and stylish designs
• May have different added features
• It is a plug-and-play device
• Plugs into a USB (Universal Serial Bus) port
• Computer detects it automatically as a removable drive
• Once done, it can be simply plugged out of the USB port
• Flash drive does not require any battery, cable, or software
• It is the most preferred external data storage
• It is based on flash memory storage technology
• Flash memory is non-volatile, Electrically Erasable
• Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) chip
• It is a highly durable solid-state storage having data
• retention capability of more than 10 years
Semiconductor Memories

• Read Only Memory (ROM)

• Random Access Memory (RAM)

 (ROM)
A combinational circuit with n inputs and b
outputs:

Address n 2n x b b Data
inputs ROM outputs
A(n-1, ... , 0) D(b-1, ... , 0)

 Programmable ¾ values determined by user

 Nonvolatile ¾ contents retained without power

 ROM
+5 V

R3 R2 R1 R0

/w0 0101 1 of n Word Lines

A1
/w1 1111
2 to 4
A0 Decoder /w2
0001
/w3 1000
Bit Lines
D0
Diode 1 D1
D2
No Diode 0
D3

Why use diodes?

Why not replace them with wires?
 Internal Structure of MOS
Transistor ROM
Replace diodes with MOS transistors
Change decoder to active-high outputs

+5 V

R3 R2 R1 R0
w3
1000

Transistor 1
/D3 /D2 /D1 /D0
No transistor 0

JZ
 Types Of ROMs
Mask ROM
 Connections made by the semiconductor vendor Bit Line
 Expensive setup cost
 Several weeks for delivery
 High volume only Word Line
 Bipolar or MOS technology

PROM
 Programmable ROM
 Connections made by equipment manufacturer
 Vaporize (blow) fusible links with PROM programmer using
high voltage/current pulses
 Bipolar technology
 One-time programmable
 Types of ROMs
EPROM
 Erasable Programmable ROM
 Charge trapped on extra “floating gate” of
MOS transistors
 Exposure to UV light to removes charge
 10-20 minutes
 Quartz Lid = expensive package
 Limited number of erasures (10-100)
 All data is erased when UV light is exposed.
(Disadvantage)
 Chip must be removed before exposing to UV
light

EEPROM (E2ROM)
 Electrically Erasable ROM
 Floating gates charged/discharged electrically
 Selected data can be erased.
 Not RAM! (relatively slow charge/discharge)
 Types of ROMs Cont…

Flash Memory
Electronically erasable in blocks
100,000 erase cycles
Simpler and denser than EEPROM
 ROM Type Summary

Type Technology Read Cycle Write Cycle Comments

Mask ROM NMOS, CMOS 20-200 ns Write once; low power
4 weeks Write once; high power; low density
Mask ROM Bipolar <100 ns
4 weeks Write once; high power; no mask
PROM Bipolar <100 ns
charge
5 minutes
EPROM NMOS, CMOS 25-200 ns Reusable; low power; no mask charge
5 minutes
EEPROM NMOS 50-200 ns 10,000 writes/location limit
10 ms/byte
FLASH CMOS 25-200 ns 100,000 erase cycles
10 ms/block
 RAM)
RWM = RAM (Random Access Memory)
Highly structured like ROM’s and PLD’s
Can store and retrieve data at the same speed

Static RAM (SRAM) retains data in latches

(while powered)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) stores data as capacitor
charge; all capacitors must be recharged
periodically.

Volatile Memory: Both Static and Dynamic

RAM
Nonvolatile Memory: Data retained when
 Memory
Types
SRAM , DRAM

Application
Primary memory, Cache , FIFO , STACK

Speed
Access Typical – 10 – 100 ns
Memory

Basic SRAM Cell Basic SRAM Cell not

Gate is replaced by
CMOS Inverter.

Basic SRAM Cell

using BJT.
 DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
• Very high density (Gb/cm2) & low cost
• Based on capacitive (non-regenerative) storage
• Charge stored on a capacitor (logic level)
• Periphery circuitry also in CMOS
• decoders, selectors, sense amplifier, out-
drivers..
• Dynamic Random Access Memory
• Dynamic:
• Periodically refresh information in a bit cell.
• Else it is lost.
• Small footprint: transistor + capacitor
• High density memory
• Cheap.
• Read complicated
• Slower than SRAM
SRAM Vs DRAM
 DRAM
 When a bit needs to be put in memory, the transistor is used to charge or
discharge the capacitor.
 A charged capacitor represents a logic high, or '1', while a discharged
capacitor represents a logic low, or '0’.
 The charging/discharging is done via the wordline and bitline, shown in
Figure
DRAM
DRAM Array
 References
 M. Morris Mano, “Digital Logic and computer
design”. Pearson Education Publication, India,
2017.
 A. Anand Kumar, “Fundamentals of Digital
circuits”. Prentice hall Inc. (PHI) Publication,
2016.
John F. Wakerly “Digital Design: Principles And
Practices”,4/E. Pearson Education India, 2008.

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 Summary
In this lecture we have covered the following
topics:-
 Overview of Memories
 Memory Classification
 Magnetic Storages
 Optical Data Storages
 Semiconductor Memories: ROM
 Semiconductor Memories: RAM
 Types of RAM: SRAM & DRAM
 SRAM
 DRAM

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 THANK YOU!!

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