Modern Physics

Dr. Nayan Biswas (B.N.Y.S.)

Assistant Professor (FNYS)
University of Patanjali
Atoms
• All elements consists of very small invisible
particles, called atom. Every atom is a
sphere of radius of the order of 10-10 m, in
which entire mass is uniformly distributed
and negative charged electrons revolve
around the nucleus.
Atom
• Atom, as a whole, is electrically neutral and therefore
contains equal amount of positive and negative
charges.
• In Thomson’s model, an atom is a spherical cloud of
positive charges with electrons embedded in it.
• In Rutherford’s model, most of the mass of the atom
and all its positive charge are concentrated in a tiny
nucleus (typically one by ten thousand the size of an
atom), and the electrons revolve around it.
 Atom

Rutherford nuclear model has two main difficulties in

explaining the structure of atom:
(a) It predicts that atoms are unstable because the
accelerated electrons revolving around the nucleus
must spiral into the nucleus. This contradicts the
stability of matter.
(b) It cannot explain the characteristic line spectra of
atoms of different elements.
Atoms

• Atoms of each element are stable and

emit characteristic spectrum. The
spectrum consists of a set of isolated
parallel lines termed as line spectrum.
It provides useful information about
the atomic structure.
Atom

• The atomic hydrogen emits a line

spectrum consisting of various series.
The frequency of any line in a series
can be expressed as a difference of two
terms;
• Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen
series, Brackett series, Pfund series.
Niel’s Bohr proposed model

• To explain the line spectra emitted by atoms,

as well as the stability of atoms, Niel’s Bohr
proposed a model for hydrogenic (single
elctron) atoms. He introduced three postulates
and laid the foundations of quantum
mechanics:
• (a) In a hydrogen atom, an electron revolves in
certain stable orbits (called stationary orbits)
without the emission of radiant energy.
Niel’s Bohr proposed model

• (b) The stationary orbits are those for

which the angular momentum is some
integral multiple of h/2π. (Bohr’s
quantisation condition.) That is L =
nh/2π, where n is an integer called a
quantum number.
 Niel’s Bohr proposed model
• (c) The third postulate states that an electron might make a
transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to
another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is
emitted having energy equal to the energy difference
between the initial and final states. The frequency (ν) of the
emitted photon is then given by
• hν = Ei – Ef
• An atom absorbs radiation of the same frequency the atom
emits, in which case the electron is transferred to an orbit
with a higher value of n.
• Ei + hν = Ef
Atom

• As a result of the quantisation condition of angular

momentum, the electron orbits the nucleus at only
specific radii. For a hydrogen atom it is given by = –
13.6 eV/n2
• The n = 1 state is called ground state. In hydrogen
atom the ground state energy is –13.6 eV. Higher
values of n correspond to excited states (n > 1).
Atoms are excited to these higher states by
collisions with other atoms or electrons or by
absorption of a photon of right frequency.
de Broglie’s hypothesis

• de Broglie’s hypothesis that electrons have a

wavelength λ = h/mv gave an explanation
for Bohr’s quantised orbits by bringing in the
waveparticle duality. The orbits correspond
to circular standing waves in which the
circumference of the orbit equals a whole
number of wavelengths.
Bohr’s model

• Bohr’s model is applicable only to

hydrogenic (single electron) atoms. It
cannot be extended to even two
electron atoms such as helium. This
model is also unable to explain for the
relative intensities of the frequencies
emitted even by hydrogenic atoms.
Electron

• An electron is a negatively
charged subatomic particle
that can be either bound to an
atom or free (not bound). An
electron that is bound to an atom
is one of the three primary types
of particles within the atom -- the
other two are protons and
neutrons.
Proton

• A proton is a subatomic particle found in the

nucleus of every atom. The particle has a
positive electrical charge, equal and opposite
to that of the electron. If isolated, a single
proton would have a mass of only 1.673 * 10-
27
kilogram, just slightly less than the mass of
a neutron.
 Neutron

• A neutron is a subatomic
particle found in the nucleus
of every atom except that of
simple hydrogen. The particle
derives its name from the fact
that it has no electrical charge; it
is neutral. Neutrons are
extremely dense.
Neutron
• James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932.
He discovered it using this curious device which
he made from pieces found in the laboratory:
• Neutrons are very small indeed.
• There are stars made of neutrons.
• Neutrons are slightly heavier than protons.
• Neutrons are made of three quarks.
 Nucleus

• Atomic nuclei consist of electrically

positive protons and electrically
neutral neutrons. These are held
together by the strongest known
fundamental force, called the strong
force. The nucleus makes up much
less than . 01% of the volume of the
atom, but typically contains more
than 99.9% of the mass of the atom.
Cathode Rays

• Cathode rays are the beam of electrons

travelling from the negatively-charged
cathode to the positively charged anode at
the other end of the vacuum tube. These
cathode rays travel in a straight-line path at
high speed when a voltage difference is
applied to the electrodes.
Cathode Rays

• They travel in a straight path.

• They have a negative electric charge.
• They have particle property.
• Electric and magnetic fields deflect cathode rays .
• Charge/mass ratio of the rays is constant.
• They travel from the cathode to the anode.
Cathode-ray tube (CRT)

• A cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum

tube in which an electron beam, deflected
by applied electric or magnetic fields,
produces a trace on a fluorescent screen.
The function of the cathode ray tube is to
convert an electrical signal into a visual
display.
Cathode Rays

• The two main uses of cathode-ray

tubes are as given below:
1) They are used in oscilloscopes
which are used in physics
laboratories.
2) They are also used in imaging
equipment for space exploration and
laboratory findings.
Photocell
• A photocell is a resistor that
changes resistance depending
on the amount of light incident
on it. A photocell operates on
semiconductor photoconductivity:
the energy of photons hitting the
semiconductor frees electrons to
flow, decreasing the resistance.
Photo electric cell

• Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which converts

light energy into electrical energy . It works on the principle
of photo electric effect. Photo cells are classified into three
types. They are
• (i) Photo emissive cell :A photo emissive cell, commonly known
as a phototube, makes use of the photoelectric effect, the
phenomenon whereby light-sensitive surfaces give off
electrons when struck by light. Photoemissive cells are
sometimes called photocells or electric eyes.
Photo electric cell

• (ii) Photo voltaic cell :Solar cars depend on photovoltaic

cells to convert sunlight into electricity. It is equipped with
over 35,000 photovoltaic cells laminated in 272 glass panels
to collect sunlight and convert it into energy.
• (iii) Photo conductive cell : A photoconductive cell is a two-
way terminal semiconductor device where the terminal
resistance varies linearly compared to the intensity of
the incident light. Thus photoconductive cells are also
known as photoresistive devices. There are two primary
materials, cadmium sulfide as well as cadmium selenide.
Photo electric cell

• Photocells are regularly used to control parking

lot lights, street lights, and illuminated
business signs. A wide range of photocells are
available, but we'll discuss those most relevant
to indoor and outdoor lighting. Plug-in photocells
are compatible with a standard outlet and
command a pass-through plug.
 Radioactivity
• Due to nuclear instability, an atom’s nucleus exhibits the
phenomenon of Radioactivity. Energy is lost due to radiation
that is emitted out of the unstable nucleus of an atom. Two
forces, namely the force of repulsion that is electrostatic and
the powerful forces of attraction of the nucleus, keep the
nucleus together. These two forces are considered extremely
strong in the natural environment. The chance of encountering
instability increases as the size of the nucleus increases
because the mass of the nucleus becomes a lot when
concentrated. That’s the reason why atoms of Plutonium,
Uranium are extremely unstable and undergo the phenomenon
of radioactivity.
 Radioactivity
• Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity by accident. A
Uranium compound was placed in a drawer containing
photographic plates, wrapped in a black paper. When the
plates were examined later, it was found that they were
exposed! This exposure gave rise to the concept of Radioactive
decay. Radioactivity can be seen in such forms
• Gamma Decay (Photons having high energy are emitted)
• Beta Decay (Emission consists of Electrons)
• Alpha Decay (Emission consists of Helium nucleus)
Radioactive radiations that are obtained
from α, β, and γ rays:
 Laws of Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the result of the decay of the nucleus.
• The nucleus’s decay rate is independent of temperature
and pressure.
• Radioactivity is dependent on the law of conservation of
charge.
• The physical and chemical properties of the daughter
nucleus are different from the mother nucleus.
• The emission of energy from radioactivity is always
accompanied by alpha, beta, and gamma particles.
• The rate of decay of radioactive substances is dependent
Units of Radioactivity

• Curie and Rutherford are the units of

radioactivity.
• 1C = 3.7 × 104 Rd is the relationship
between Curie and Rutherford.
 Alpha Decay
• Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay where the
unstable atomic nuclei emit a helium nucleus (alpha
particle) and in the process transforms into another
more stable element. The particle ejected out, the
alpha particle, consists of four nucleons, and they are
two neutrons and two protons. Alpha radiation reduces
the ratio of protons to neutrons in the parent nucleus,
bringing it to a more stable configuration. An alpha
particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom.
Alpha Decay

• The first observations and investigation into

alpha decay were made by Ernest Rutherford,
who used alpha particles in his gold foil
scattering experiment. As the alpha particle;
made of two protons and neutron; exits the
nucleus, the atomic number of the radioactive
sample changes. The element left behind after
alpha decay is two atomic numbers lesser and
four mass numbers lower.
Occurrence of alpha decay

• Alpha decay occurs only in the heaviest of the

elements. The element’s nucleus should be
large or unstable enough to undergo
spontaneous fission-type changes. It is the
most common form of decay in such elements.
The alpha particles emitted out of the nucleus
usually have an energy level of around 5 MeV
and have a speed of around 5% of light.
Occurrence of alpha decay

• It is important to note that alpha particles

possess a charge of +2 due to the
absence of electrons. Due to this charge
and owing to its heavy mass, an alpha
particle reacts with the surroundings
vigorously to lose all of its energy almost
immediately. Their forward motion can be
stopped by a few centimeters of air.
Occurrence of alpha decay

• Owing to their heaviness and their

charge, this kind of radioactive decay
reacts most violently with the human
body. They have a high ionizing power
due to which they can wreak havoc with a
tissue. An overdose of alpha radiation
results in the formation of blisters and
burns on the victim’s bodies.
 Uses of Radioactivity
• Americium-241 is an alpha emitter and is used for domestic
smoke detectors in the United States.
• The alpha particles given out by the Americium sample ionize
the air in the chamber of the smoke detector leading to a
small current in the chamber.
• When smoke enters the chamber, it causes a drop in current
causing the alarm to go off. Although Alpha particles have a
very short range, they are devastating when in close contact.
• Alpha emitters, when swallowed, come in close contact with
tissue and are deadly in such circumstances and is therefore
used in assassination attempts by radiation poisoning.
 Advantages of radioactivity are

• Gamma rays are used to kill cancerous cells and hence

used in radiotherapy.
• Cobalt-60 is used to destroy carcinogenic cells.
• Gamma rays are used in scanning the internal parts of the
body.
• Gamma rays kill microbes present in food and prevent it
from decay by increasing the shelf life.
• Age of the rocks can be studied using radioactive
radiations by measuring the argon content present in the
rock.
Disadvantages of radioactivity are:

• High dosage of radioactive radiation

on the body might lead to death.
• Radioactive isotopes are expensive.
Radioactivity

• Radioactivity is a phenomenon
exhibited by a few matters of
emitting energy and subatomic
particles spontaneously.
Radioactivity is due to the nuclear
instability of an atom.
Uses of Radioactivity

•Used in domestic smoke detectors

•Used to sterilize medical instruments
•Used to diagnose and treat diseases
•Used to produce electric power
Alpha particle
• Alpha particles are charged particles, which are emitted
from naturally occurring materials (such as uranium,
thorium, and radium) and man-made elements (such as
plutonium and americium). These alpha emitters are
primarily used (in very small amounts) in items such
as smoke detectors.
• Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha
radiation, consist of two protons and two neutrons bound
together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus.
 Beta particle
• A beta particle, also called beta ray or beta
radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-
speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of
an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are
two forms of beta decay, β− decay and β+ decay, which produce
electrons and positrons respectively.
• Beta radiation is used for tracers and monitoring the thickness
of materials. Doctors may use radioactive chemicals called
tracers for medical imaging. Certain chemicals concentrate in
different damaged or diseased parts of the body, and the radiation
concentrates with it.
 Gamma ray
• A gamma ray, also known as gamma radiation (symbol γ or
v), is a penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation arising
from the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei. It consists of
the shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves, typically
shorter than those of X-rays. With frequencies above 30
exahertz (30×1018 Hz), it imparts the highest photon energy.
Uses of Gamma Rays:

• Sterilize medical equipment.

• Sterilize food (irradiated food)
• Used as tracers in medicine.
• Radio Therapy- In oncology, to kill cancerous cells.
• Gamma-Ray Astronomy.
 X-Rays

• X-Rays or X-radiation as a form of electromagnetic radiation.

They are powerful waves of electromagnetic energy.
• Most of them have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10
nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 3 ×
1019 Hz to 3×1016 Hz
• Energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.
• German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen is typically credited for the
discovery of X-Rays in 1895.
Properties of X-Rays

• hey have a shorter wavelength of

the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Requires high voltage to produce X-Rays.
• They are used to capture the human skeleton defects.
• They travel in a straight line and do not carry an
electric charge with them.
• They are capable of travelling in a vacuum.
 X-Rays Uses
• Medical Use: They are used for medical purposes to detect
the breakage in human bones.
• Security: They are used as a scanner to scan the luggage
of passengers in airports, rail terminals, and other places.
• Astronomy: It is emitted by celestial objects and are
studied to understand the environment.
• Industrial Purpose: It is widely used to detect the defects
in the welds.
• Restoration: They are used to restoring old paintings.
Computerized tomography (CT)

• A computerized tomography (CT) scan

combines a series of X-ray images taken
from different angles around your body
and uses computer processing to create
cross-sectional images (slices) of the
bones, blood vessels and soft tissues
inside your body.
CT scans

• CT scans take a fast series of X-ray

pictures, which are put together to create
images of the area that was scanned. An
MRI uses strong magnetic fields to take
pictures of the inside of the body. CT
scans are usually the first choice for
imaging. MRIs are useful for certain
diseases that a CT scan cannot detect.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

• Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

(NMR spectroscopy) is a technique that
exploits the magnetic properties of certain
atomic nuclei and can be used to determine
the physical and chemical properties of atoms
or the molecules in which they are contained.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

• NMR spectroscopy is the use of NMR

phenomena to study the physical, chemical,
and biological properties of matter. Chemists
use it to determine molecular identity and
structure. Medical practitioners employ magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), a multidimensional
NMR imaging technique, for diagnostic
purposes.
Radioactive safety measures

• This principle means that even if it is a

small dose, if receiving that dose has no
direct benefit, you should try to avoid it.
To do this, you can use three basic
protective measures in radiation
safety: time, distance, and shielding.
Radioactive safety measures

• Wear personal protective equipment. The minimum

requirements include a laboratory coat, gloves, safety
glasses and close-toed shoes. Wear whole-body
dosimeters (e.g. Luxel dosimeter) when handling
radioactive material and extremity dosimeters (e.g. finger
ring), if one is provided by the RPO.
• Disposable gloves (latex or nitrile gloves are generally
suitable) a full-length lab coat (worn closed with
sleeves rolled down) close-toed shoes.
Symbols:
Basic Radiation Tri-Foil Sign
 Basic Radiation Tri-Foil Sign

•International symbol of radiation,

usually accompanied by more specific
text.
•Symbol can be magenta or black, on a
yellow background.
•Sign must be posted where radioactive
materials are handled or where
radiation-producing equipment is used.
•Sign is used as a warning to protect
Basic Radiation Tri-Foil Sign

• New Ionizing Radiation

Warning Symbol from
the International
Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
and International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA)
Basic Radiation Tri-Foil Sign
Electrical Conductors

• Electrical conductors are the materials or

substances which allow the electrical current to
pass through them. In these materials, electrical
charge carriers, i.e., lots of electrons are
available freely to transfer the electricity from
one end to another. Pure elemental silver is the
best electrical conductor. Some other metals like
copper, steel, gold, aluminum, and brass are
also good electrical conductors.
Types of electrical conductors :

There are four types of electrical

conductors.
1. Good conductors
2. Semiconductors
3. Resistors and
4. Insulators/ Non-conductors
 Good Conductors

• Almost all the metals are good conductors of electricity

as they allow transferring the electricity with little
resistance through them. Some non-metals are also
exhibiting electrical conductivity. For example, graphite
is a good conductor of electricity. Though graphite is
made from carbon (a bad conductor of electricity) but
the structure of it is such that one of the four electrons
in this tetravalent material is free which takes the part
to transfer the electricity. In the metals, a pool of
electrons is available to transfer the electricity.
 Good Conductors

• Some metals like copper, iron, silver, aluminum and gold

are good conductors of electricity and are used widely.
Though gold and silver metals are very good conductors
bur are costlier than copper and aluminum. Hence, they
are used in very sophisticated instruments like computers,
mobiles and other instruments where a precise amount of
electricity is required. Copper is abundantly available and
is widely used in home appliances and circuits. Though
aluminum has slightly less conductivity than the copper
metal it is very cheap therefore it is used in transmission
lines.
 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are those materials which have the
sensitivity against electricity between good
conductors and insulators. Thus, semiconductors are
non-metals and have limited electrical conductivity.
In the pure form some non-metals like silicon,
germanium is good semiconductors. By adding
some impurities to them, their conductivity can be
altered through the doping process. Almost all the
electrical and electronic devices use semiconductors
to control the flow of currents in them.
Resistors

• A resistor is a small electronic device

which resists and reduces the electrical
current and supply the electricity to the
electrical or electronic goods in a
controlled manner. Due to the resistance
offered by resistors, save these goods
from damage that may occur due to
excessive supply of electricity.
 Insulators
• Insulators are the materials which do not allow the electric
current to flow through them. In these materials, electrons
are bonded tightly with their atoms and do not get
separated even after the application of the strong potential
difference. Some common examples are wood, plastic,
glass, rubber, etc. and they are used to cover the wire
through which the electric current is passing. House-hold
electric circuits and devices are covered by the insulators
to avoid energy loss and safety. Covering the copper wires
by these insulators makes the electricity more efficient by
concentrating the flow.
Concept of Electrons and Holes in
Semiconductors
Classification of Semiconductors
Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic
Semiconductors (a) In absence of electric field (b) In
presence of electric Field
Classification of Extrinsic
Semiconductor
N-Type Semiconductor

• Mainly due to electrons

• Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
• When a pure semiconductor (Silicon
or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity
(P, As, Sb, Bi) then, four electrons out of five
valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of
Ge or Si.
 N-Type Semiconductor

• The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom
donates a free electron for conduction in the lattice and is called
“Donar“.
• Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an
impurity, the negative charge carriers increase. Hence, it is called
n-type semiconductor.
• Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an
immobile positive ion. As conduction is due to a large number of
free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the
P-Type Semiconductor

• Mainly due to holes

• Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
• When a pure semiconductor is doped with a
trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the three
valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three
of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor.
 P-Type Semiconductor
• This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity.
These impurity atoms which are ready to accept bonded
electrons are called “Acceptors“.
• With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the
positive charge carriers) are increased. Hence, it is called p-
type semiconductor.
• Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the acceptors become an
immobile negative ion. As conduction is due to a large
number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are
MAJORITY CARRIERS and electrons are MINORITY CARRIERS.
P-N Junction

• A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary

between two semiconductor material types,
namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a
semiconductor.
 Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction
Diode

• There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and
this is based on the voltage applied:
• Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.
• Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is
connected to the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to
the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is
connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.
Forward Bias
 Forward Bias
• When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal
and the n-type to the negative terminal, then the P-N junction is
said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is forward
biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the
applied electric field are in opposite directions. When both the
electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a
magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a
less resistive and thinner depletion region. The depletion
region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied voltage
is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the
depletion region becomes completely negligible, and the current
flows across it unimpeded.
Reverse Bias
Reverse Bias
• When the p-type is connected to the battery’s
negative terminal and the n-type is connected to the
positive side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In
this case, the built-in electric field and the applied
electric field are in the same direction. When the two
fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the
same direction as the built-in electric field, creating a
more resistive, thicker depletion region. The
depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker
if the applied voltage becomes larger.
Thank You