Introduction to

Science
Topic Science and the
Scientific Method
 What is Science?
What is the Scientific Method and
how does science progress?
Where does it come from?
What is Scientific Misconduct and
what may be the consequences of
this (Case study) ?
Review and reflection
questions: Lecture 1
 What is the purpose of science?
 How you define science briefly (in a sentence or
two)?
 Why is it important to be scientifically literate?
 What is the peer review system in science?
 Give an example of a debate in the public arena
related to the natural environment in which
science should be the predominate basis for
determination of policy and decision making.
Negative View of Science

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=18ZFUCOT8Xc

JRobert Oppenheimer: American theoretical

physicist and professor of physics at the University of
California, Berkeley
Scientific director: Manhattan Project
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pqZqfTOxFhY
― J. Robert Oppenheimer
“We knew the world would not be the same. A few
people laughed, a few people cried. Most people
were silent. I remembered the line from the Hindu
scripture, the Bhagavad-Gita……; Vishnu…., 'Now I
am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.' I
suppose we all thought that, one way or another.”
Negative images of Science

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7QlWBnL0zjU
Positive images of science
What is science?

 Give me some examples of what you

think science is.
What is Science?
 Science refers to a system (method) of
acquiring knowledge about the
structure and behaviour of universe(s?)
and it component parts
 uses observation and
experimentation to underpin (test)
explanations of natural phenomena
(i.e. theories) (i.e. evidence based)
 These explanations based on logical
arguments (including mathematics,
statistical modelling) (Does not
invoke supernatural explanations i.e.
outside of nature)
Examples of definitions

 the systematic study of the structure and

behaviour of the physical and natural world
through observation, experimentation, and the
testing of theories against the evidence obtained
 any system of knowledge that is concerned with
the physical world and its phenomena and that
entails unbiased observations and systematic
experimentation.
 Science is a strict systematic discipline that builds
and organises knowledge in the form of testable
hypotheses and predictions about the world.
 How do we encapsulate the purpose
of science in a simple statement
(What is the purpose of science?)
 To produce useful models of reality
(of the universe)
These should have predictive
value
Standard Model of
Physics

Experiments from the Large Hadron

Collider Results Suggest There's a Flaw in
The Standard Model of Physics
Social context of science
 Distinction between Science and Scientists
 Scientists are people
 Egos, ambition, prejudices, biases, lack of objectivity
 Scientists (biologists) may construct a view of nature
using models, metaphors and analogies, along with
perspectives derived from their cultural circumstances
potentially leading to areas of poorly conducted science
(Scientific racism, Eugenics)
 Furthermore the science agenda may be dictated by
people making decisions about what science is important
 Politicians
 Funding agencies with vested interests
 Public opinion
Science is also …..
 Theorganized body of knowledge people
have gained using that system.

 Traditionallyformally published in scientific

journals and books many supported by
Learned Societies
 In “modern science” these are subject to
peer review before publication
 First journal published by Royal Society
1665: use of peer review system
Challenges to conventional peer
review system and academic
journals
 Open peer review
 Rapid pre-screening
 “Published” as discussion papers on open access pre-print
server
 Wider interactive review (designated reviewers, other
members of scientific community)
 Comments, suggestion, challenges : response by authors
 Manuscript revised and then submitted similar to
traditional peer reviews.
 Publication
 https://www.sciencealert.com/a-group-of-biologists-are-
bypassing-journals-and-uploading-their-work-straight-to
-the-internet
Internet Challenges to peer
review system and academic
journals
 Publication by learned societies:

 Cost recovery, funds challenged back into science

 Publications by corporatized large academic
publishing houses
 Profit driven: high cost
 Elsevier
 subscription fee: library/individuals pays to view. No
charge to author for publications but hands over
copyright to publishing house.
 https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2019/02/university-c
alifornia-boycotts-publishing-giant-elsevier-over-journal
-costs-and-open
 Open access journals
 Author pays to publish; access by others free.
 Pre-publication servers
 No cost
 Research gate
 Face book for scientists/researchers. Author makes
publications available to other members.
 https://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/17/science/open-s
cience-challenges-journal-tradition-with-web-collabor
ation.html

 Sci hub
 provides free access to millions of research
papers and books, without regard to copyright, by
bypassing publishers' paywalls
 https://sci-hub.tw/

 Rise of predatory journals : essentially fake

journals
 Why should we (the public)
be scientifically literate?
 Scienceand technologies that arise
from science:
Affects all of our lives
The most prominent differences
between our lives and those of
earlier generations are due to
differences brought about by
discoveries, investigations,
explorations and inventions in the
sciences
 Therefore should know basis of:
 How it works
 From where it came
 What is its underlying method and
purpose
 How confident can we be above scientific
conclusions
 And how does scientific knowledge
advance.
 Allows rational and effective contribution
to debate around issues of public
interest (that have a basis in science)
Examples of Scientific
issues in the public arena
 Give some examples:
COVID 19
Shut downs/Vaccination
 https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-an
http://www.1080facts.co.nz/overview-of-1080.html d-threats/methods-of-control/1080/

https://www.spca.nz/news-and-events/new
s-article/1080-what-is-it-and-what-can-be-d
one-about-it
https://1080science.co.nz/
 Parliamentary Commissioner for the
Environment has broad powers to
investigate environmental concerns and is
independent of the government of the day.

Commissioner reports directly to Parliament

as a whole through the Speaker of the
House and the Officers of Parliament
Committee.

https://www.pce.parliament.nz/publications/upd
ate-report-evaluating-the-use-of-1080-predator https://www.pce.parliament.nz/
s-poisons-and-silent-forests
https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/environment/
climate-change/

https://www.ipcc.ch/

https://clintel.org/
A case study: Fluoridation of
water
 Process of adjusting the natural level of
fluoride in the water supply to between
0.7 ppm and 1.0 ppm
 Natural levels of fluoride found in
untreated water supplies in New Zealand:
low. The fluoride levels in reticulated
water supplies have been increased by
adding F to supply done in many (but not
all) regions around New Zealand.
 Decreases incidence of tooth decay.

 https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/
article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11994480
Domestic water supply New Zealand: the responsibility
of Local Government (but remember Three Waters
Proposal)
“While both district health boards and local authorities
have responsibilities for the health of the populations
they serve, the decision to adjust the level of Fluoride
in water supplies is made by local authorities.”
Historically under pressure by vocal anti-fluoridation
lobbyists: fluoridation of water in some jurisdictions
was halted.
Also cases of ageing infrastructure (Wellington 2016-
2022)
https://www.otago.ac.nz/news/news/
otago0235751.html

https://www.newshub.co.nz/home/new-zealand/
2022/10/three-waters-will-ensure-fluoride-is-correctly-
added-to-water-supplies-nz-dental-association-
hopes.html
Case-Study Fluoridation of
water
What is the real debate ?

 Balance between doing good (reducing dental

decay) and not doing significant harm (minimal
dental mottling) is scientifically clear.
 Actually a debate around the issue of values.
 How to balance the common good of a
population-based intervention with individual
rights?
 Can food be used as a medium for delivering
a public heath intervention? Is it OK for
public water to be manipulated for an
additional health benefit or for a potentially
medicinal purpose?

 These are issues of societal values not

science.
 South Taranaki District Council decided in
December 2012 to add fluoride to the water in
both Pātea and Waverley,
 Resulted in a legal challenge by anti-fluoride
protesters who argued it was a medicine and as
such people had the legal right to refuse it.
 Supreme Court ruling (June 2018)
 https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki-daily-news/
news/105124831/supreme-court-decision-on-
fluoride-in-water-is-welcomed
 Fluoride did amount to a medical treatment but the
council was justified in introducing it to the water
supply.
 Not constrained by section 11 of the Bill of Rights
Act.
 Dialogue on such values issues is a
proper discourse for society,
 In these discourse
 debate often hijacked by a
(deliberate?) misinterpretation of
science.
 Such values debates (i.e. balance
between public good and right of
choice)
 critical for a healthy democracy
 but they cannot proceed usefully if the
debate is shifted inappropriately to
another domain