Introduction To Computer Networks

Modern world scenario is ever changing. Data Communication and network have
changed the way business and other daily affair works. Now, they highly rely on
computer networks and internetwork.
A set of devices often mentioned as nodes connected by media link is called a Network.

A node can be a device which is capable of sending or receiving data generated by

other nodes on the network like a computer, printer etc. These links connecting the
devices are called Communication channels.
Computer network is a telecommunication channel using which we can share data with
other coomputers or devices, connected to the same network. It is also called Data
Network. The best example of computer network is Internet.
Computer network does not mean a system with one Control Unit connected to multiple
other systems as its slave. That is Distributed system, not Computer Network.
A network must be able to meet certain criterias, these are mentioned below:

1. Performance

2. Reliability

3. Scalability

Computer Networks: Performance

It can be measured in the following ways:

 Transit time : It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
 Response time : It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.

Other ways to measure performance are :

1. Efficiency of software

2. Number of users

3. Capability of connected hardware

Computer Networks: Reliability
It decides the frequency at which network failure take place. More the failures are, less
is the network's reliability.

Computer Networks: Security

It refers to the protection of data from any unauthorised user or access. While travelling
through network, data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if
attempted. Hence security is also a very important characteristic for Networks.

Properties of a Good Network

1. Interpersonal Communication: We can communicate with each other efficiently and

easily. Example: emails, chat rooms, video conferencing etc, all of these are possible

because of computer networks.

2. Resources can be shared: We can share physical resources by making them
available

on a network such as printers, scanners etc.

3. Sharing files, data: Authorised users are allowed to share the files on the network

Basic Communication Model

A Communication model is used to exchange data between two parties. For example:
communication between a computer, server and telephone (through modem).

Communication Model: Source

Data to be transmitted is generated by this device, example: telephones, personal
computers etc.
Communication Model: Transmitter
The data generated by the source system is not directly transmitted in the form its
generated. The transmitter transforms and encodes the data in such a form to produce
electromagnetic waves or signals.

Communication Model: Transmission System

A transmission system can be a single transmission line or a complex network
connecting source and destination.

Communication Model: Receiver

Receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form
which is easily managed by the destination device.

Communication Model: Destination

Destination receives the incoming data from the receiver.

Data Communication
The exchange of data between two devices through a transmission medium is
called Data Communication. The data is exchanged in the form of 0's and 1's. The
transmission medium used is wire cable. For data communication to occur, the
communication device must be a part of a communication system. Data Communication
has two types - Local and Remote which are discussed below:

Data Communication: Local

Local communication takes place when the communicating devices are in the same
geographical area, same building, or face-to-face etc.
Data Communication: Remote
Remote communication takes place over a distance i.e. the devices are farther. The
effectiveness of a data communication can be measured through the following features :

1. Delivery: Delivery should be done to the correct destination.

2. Timeliness: Delivery should be on time.

3. Accuracy: Data delivered should be accurate.

Components of Data Communication

1. Message: It is the information to be delivered.

2. Sender: Sender is the person who is sending the message.

3. Receiver: Receiver is the person to whom the message is being sent to.

4. Medium: It is the medium through which the message is sent. For example: A Modem.

5. Protocol: These are some set of rules which govern data communication.

Computer Networks: Home Applications

Some of the most important uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:

 Access to remote information

 Person-to-person communication
 Interactive entertainment
 Electronic commerce

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear
Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

3. It is cost effective.
4. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

5. Used in small networks.

6. It is easy to understand.

7. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

8. Cables fails then whole network fails.

9. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.

10. Cable has a limited length.

 4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for
each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because
if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100

nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence

to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2

connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

 3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite

direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the

network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to
pass

through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

5. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.

6. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

7. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

8. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

9. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

4. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

5. Hub can be upgraded easily.

6. Easy to troubleshoot.

7. Easy to setup and modify.

8. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

9. Cost of installation is high.

10. Expensive to use.
 3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the

hub.

4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n
devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing

2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing
logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing
logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We
can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic
is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads
to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the
same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three
devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each
other.

Features of Mesh Topology

3. Fully connected.
4. Robust.

5. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

6. Each connection can carry its own data load.

7. It is robust.

8. Fault is diagnosed easily.

9. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.

3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

3. Extension of bus and star topologies.

4. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

5. Easily managed and maintained.

6. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.

3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.

4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star
topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.

3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

5. Complex in design.
6. Costly.

Transmission Modes in Computer

Networks
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two
devices connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These
modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission
modes. They are:

7. Simplex Mode

8. Half duplex Mode

9. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e.
communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender.
Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send a
command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and
remote, keyboard and monitor etc.

HALF DUPLEX Mode

Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on
a signal carrier, but not at the same time.
For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex
transmission, one workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive
data on the line from the same direction in which data was just transmitted. Hence half-
duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry data in both
directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time but
messages are sent in both the directions.
FULL DUPLEX Mode
In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the
same time in other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication
between two persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the
same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for
receiving data.

Transmission Mediums in Computer

Networks
Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals.
Signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to
another. Electromagnetic signals travel through vacuum, air or other transmission
mediums to move from one point to another(from sender to receiver).
Electromagnetic energy (includes electrical and magnetic fields) consists of power,
voice, visible light, radio waves, ultraviolet light, gamma rays etc.
Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to
another. The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven layer
model is dedicated to the transmission media, we will study the OSI Model later.
Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission
Medium

1. Transmission Rate
2. Cost and Ease of Installation

3. Resistance to Environmental Conditions

4. Distances

Types of Communication Networks

Communication Networks can be of following 5 types:

5. Local Area Network (LAN)

6. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

7. Wide Area Network (WAN)

8. Wireless

9. Inter Network (Internet)

Local Area Network (LAN)
It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of
buildings or a factory. LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot.
Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other through LANs. We
can use different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star, Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network
among each other while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive
etc.
Characteristics of LAN

 LAN's are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory controls.
 LAN's operate at relatively high speed when compared to the typical WAN.
 There are different types of Media Access Control methods in a LAN, the prominent

ones are Ethernet, Token ring.

 It connects computers in a single building, block or campus, i.e. they work in a restricted

geographical area.

Applications of LAN

 One of the computer in a network can become a server serving all the remaining

computers called clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the

remaining clients.
 Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each

other locally without any internet access.

 Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Advantages of LAN

 Resource Sharing: Computer resources like printers, modems, DVD-ROM drives and

hard disks can be shared with the help of local area networks. This reduces cost and

hardware purchases.
 Software Applications Sharing: It is cheaper to use same software over network

instead of purchasing separate licensed software for each client a network.

 Easy and Cheap Communication: Data and messages can easily be transferred over

networked computers.
  Centralized Data: The data of all network users can be saved on hard disk of the server

computer. This will help users to use any workstation in a network to access their data.

Because data is not stored on workstations locally.

 Data Security: Since, data is stored on server computer centrally, it will be easy to

manage data at only one place and the data will be more secure too.
 Internet Sharing: Local Area Network provides the facility to share a single internet

connection among all the LAN users. In Net Cafes, single internet connection sharing

system keeps the internet expenses cheaper.

Disadvantages of LAN

 High Setup Cost: Although the LAN will save cost over time due to shared computer

resources, but the initial setup costs of installing Local Area Networks is high.
 Privacy Violations: The LAN administrator has the rights to check personal data files of

each and every LAN user. Moreover he can check the internet history and computer

use history of the LAN user.

 Data Security Threat: Unauthorised users can access important data of an organization

if centralized data repository is not secured properly by the LAN administrator.

 LAN Maintenance Job: Local Area Network requires a LAN Administrator because,

there are problems of software installations or hardware failures or cable disturbances in

Local Area Network. A LAN Administrator is needed at this full time job.
 Covers Limited Area: Local Area Network covers a small area like one office, one

building or a group of nearby buildings.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It was developed in 1980s.It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN
and uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed to extend over the entire city. It
can be means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network or it can be a
single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public
company.

Characteristics of MAN

 It generally covers towns and cities (50 km)

 Communication medium used for MAN are optical fibers, cables etc.
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN

 Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fibre

optic cables.
 It provides a good back bone for large network and provides greater access to WANs.
 The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of data in both directions

simultaneously.
 A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN

 More cable required for a MAN connection from one place to another.
 It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers and industrial espionage(spying)

graphical regions.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used
for the network that covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not
easy to design and maintain. Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or
Satellite links. WAN operates on low data rates.

Characteristics of WAN

 It generally covers large distances(states, countries, continents).

 Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are

connected by routers.
Advantages of WAN

 Covers a large geographical area so long distance business can connect on the one

network.
 Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.

 Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network. These messages can

have picture, sounds or data included with them(called attachments).

 Expensive things(such as printers or phone lines to the internet) can be shared by all the

computers on the network without having to buy a different peripheral for each computer.
 Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids problems where some

users may have older information than others.

Disadvantages of WAN

 Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the network.

 Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger the

network the more expensive it is.

 Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job which requires network
supervisors

and technicians to be employed.

 Security is a real issue when many different people have the ability to use
information

from other computers. Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and

expense.
Wireless Network
Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to
implement wireless networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance,
but the basic idea is the same.
Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:

1. System interconnection

2. Wireless LANs

3. Wireless WANs

System Interconnection
System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer
using short-range radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range
wireless network called Bluetooth to connect various components such as monitor,
keyboard, mouse and printer, to the main unit, without wires. Bluetooth also allows
digital cameras, headsets, scanners and other devices to connect to a computer by
merely being brought within range.
In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The
system unit is normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.

Wireless LANs
These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with
which it can communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming
increasingly common in small offices and homes, where installing Ethernet is
considered too much trouble. There is a standard for wireless LANs called IEEE 802.11,
which most systems implement and which is becoming very widespread.

Wireless WANs
The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth
wireless WAN. This system has already gone through three generations.
 The first generation was analog and for voice only.
 The second generation was digital and for voice only.
 The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.