ENS3206/ENS6143

POWER SYSTEMS 1

Lecture 5:
Power Transformers I
Textbook Reading: 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
Lecture Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Know the assumptions made for an ideal transformer and

state the ideal transformer voltage and current relationships.

 Know the convention for transformer polarity marks.

 Understand equivalent circuits for single-phase, two-winding

transformers.

 Be familiar with the per-unit system and state its advantages.

2
Overview

 Topics covered in this lecture:

• Transformers

• Basic transformer theory

• Core types

• Transformer types of losses

• Equivalent transformer circuits

• Single-phase two-winding transformers

• The per-unit system

3
What is a Transformer?

 A transformer is an electrical piece of equipment that uses

magnetic induction to change alternating current (AC) voltage

and current from one level to another.

 Inside the transformer, no energy generation or conversion of

energy from electrical to any other form occurs.

4
Transformer Use
 Practical voltages generated by available generators are around
25kV.
 Therefore, transformers are required to step up the voltages for
transmission of power in a more economical way.
 The main reason for doing so is that the power losses and
voltage drop associated with line resistances are reduced in
order to make the transfer of power over long distances more
economical.
 Then transformers are also used to step down the voltages to
levels that are safe for customers to use.
 Transformers are key elements not only in HVAC power
transmission but also in HVDC power transmission systems. 5
Transformer Operation
 The AC current that flows in the primary winding of a transformer,
which is constantly changing with time (sinusoidal) produces a
magnetic field.
 Through the flux paths, this will be induced across the secondary
winding of the transformer.
 This way, electrical energy can be transferred from the primary side
of the transformer to the secondary one without any electrical
connection (isolation).
 Power transformers have been loosely grouped into three market
segments based on size ranges:
• Small power transformers: 500 kVA to 7500 kVA
• Medium power transformers: 7500 kVA to 100 MVA
6
• Large power transformers: 100 MVA and above
 Transformer Efficiency
 The efficiency of the energy
transfer from the primary to
the secondary depends upon
the coupling of the magnetic
field between the two
windings. However, no
matter how good the
coupling is, certain magnetic
lines will not close through
the secondary resulting in
magnetic loss.
 The transformer is one of the
most efficient devices of the
power system network. 7
 Transformer Core Construction
 In order to reduce the magnetic loss, the Laminated
iron core
transformer windings are wound around
an iron core. The reason being that iron
cores concentrate the flux so that better
coupling between the primary and
secondary windings occurs.
 The cores are made of laminated iron to Secondary
reduce the effects of eddy currents,
Primary
which are induced into the core material.
 The primary and secondary windings are
Laminated
placed next to each other for improved iron core
magnetic coupling as well.
 There are two types of transformer: Secondary
Primary
• Closed-core
• Shell-core
 The shell core type offers better magnetic
coupling, since the transformer windings
are surrounded by metal on both sides. 8
The Ideal Transformer

 Four assumptions of ideal transformers:

1. The windings have zero resistance; therefore, the I2R

losses in the windings are zero

2. The core permeability is infinite, which corresponds to zero

core reluctance

3. There is no leakage flux; that is, the entire flux is confined

to the core and links both windings

4. There are no core losses

9
 Ideal Transformer Voltage and Current Relationships
 First, we review the voltage/current relationships for an ideal transformer
 We’ll define the “primary” side of the transformer as the side that usually takes power,
and the secondary as the side that usually delivers power.
• primary is usually the side with the higher voltage but may be the low voltage side
on a generator step-up transformer.
 In practice, power transformer windings and cores are contained within enclosures,
and the winding directions are not visible
 Polarity marks: Dots placed at one end of each winding such that when current
enters a winding at the dot, it produces an mmf acting in the same direction
 Turns ratio at = N1 / N2
 Ampère’s and Faraday’s laws can be used along with the preceding assumptions to
derive the ideal transformer relationships
• Ampère’s law states that the tangential component of the magnetic field intensity
vector integrated along a closed path equals the net current enclosed by that path

10
Ideal Transformer Voltage and Current Relationships (cont.)
 Faraday’s law:

 Lossless transformer:

 Load impedance referred to primary:

 Assuming a turns ratio of at, the following

relationships are true: 11
12
Conceptual Single-Phase, Phase-Shifting Transformer

13
Real Transformers

 Practical single-phase two-winding transformer assumptions:

1. The windings have resistance
2. The core permeability is finite
3. The magnetic flux is not entirely confined to the core
4. There are real and reactive power losses in the core
 There are three sources of losses in a transformer:

• Copper losses
• Hysteresis losses
• Eddy current losses
 These losses use real power and therefore reduce transformer
efficiency levels.
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Transformer Copper Losses

 Copper losses are the power losses caused by current flowing

through the winding resistances (I2R losses).

 The skin effect causes the AC resistance (impedance) of the

transformer windings to increase with frequency, so copper losses

increase with frequency if the winding current remains constant.

 Proper sizing of the winding wire and proper cooling for the

transformer minimise copper losses.

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 B

Transformer Hysteresis Losses Saturation

 Hysteresis losses are the result of the energy needed

to magnetise the core first in one direction and then in H
the other (AC) when the applied AC voltage changes
polarity.
 The relationship between the magnetic flux density (B)
and the magnetic field intensity (H) in transformer
cores is nonlinear and multivalued.
 In a B-H curve, as H increases, the core becomes saturated; that is,
− Curves flatten out as B increases above a certain level
 If the magnitude of the voltage applied to a transformer is too large, the core will
saturate, and a high magnetizing current will flow
 Hysteresis losses are proportional to the area of the magnetizing (B-H) curve of the
core material and the frequency.
 Hysteresis losses increase with frequency.
 These losses are minimised by the proper choice of magnetic materials. These
losses are reduced by using material with a thin BH curve.
 In a well-designed transformer, the applied peak voltage causes the peak flux density
in steady state to occur at the knee of the B–H curve, with a corresponding low value
of magnetizing current. 16
 Inrush Current
 When the transformer is first energised, the initial current is typically a lot
higher (up to 16 times higher) than the rated (full) load.
• Non-sinusoidal with large dc component
 Occurs when the transformer is energized when the source voltage is
positive and increasing. This initial magnetisation current of the transformer
is high enough to saturate the core.
• As B(t) moves into the saturation region of the B–H curve, large values
of H(t) will occur, and, corresponding large values of current will flow
for several cycles until it has dissipated
 Shell constructed transformers have lower inrush current than the core
counterparts, because they have more core and is harder to saturate.
 Transformer protective equipment is designed to recognise the inrush
current and ignore it in their operation. This is inevitable.
B Current
Saturation Peak Current typically 16 times Full-Load Current

Time
17
 B

Non-sinusoidal Exciting Current Saturation

 Non-sinusoidal exciting current

• When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to one winding of a
transformer with the other winding open, the flux and flux
density will be very nearly sinusoidal in steady state
• However, the magnetic field intensity and the resulting exciting
current is not sinusoidal in steady state, due to the nonlinear
B–H curve
 Usually neglected unless harmonic effects are of direct concern
• Exciting current typically <5% of rated current for power
18
transformers
 Transformer Eddy Current Losses
 Eddy currents arise because of changing flux in core.
 Eddy current is the current induced in metal near a magnetic field. If the
field surrounds the metal object, the induced current will be a loop at a right
angle to the flux.
 The core of the transformer is ideally positioned with respect to the windings
for eddy current to be induced in it.
 Eddy currents are reduced by laminating the core. The laminations break
the core into many small thin pieces of metal, thus reducing the resistance
through which eddy currents must flow, because the cross sectional area of
each lamination is small.

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Transformer Efficiency

 Transformers are the most efficient machines ever invented as part

of the power systems.

 If they are properly designed, built and cooled, transformers can be

more than 99% efficient.

 Maximum efficiency occurs when the copper loss is equal to the

core loss.

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Effect of Leakage Flux

Not all flux is within the transformer core

1  l1  N1m
2  l 2  N 2m
Assuming a linear magnetic medium we get
l1  Ll1i1 l 2  Ll 2i 2'
di1 dm
v1  r1i1  Ll1  N1
dt dt
' di 2' dm
v 2  r2i 2  Ll 2  N2
dt dt
21
Effect of Finite Core Permeability

Finite core permeability means a non-zero mmf

is required to maintain m in the core
N1i1  N 2i2   m
This value is usually modeled as a magnetizing current
 m N 2
i1   i2
N1 N1
N2  m
i1  im  i2 where i m 
N1 N1

22
 Transformer Equivalent Circuit
 Using the previous
relationships, we can derive
an equivalent circuit model
for the real transformer:
 This model is further
simplified by referring all
impedances to the primary
side:
 In power transformers, the
shunt branch draws very little
current when compared to
the load current and therefore
23
can be neglected:
Transformer Ratings

 Normal ratings of transformers are determined by manufacturer’s

nameplate ratings.
 Nameplates include:

• Continuous loading at nameplate output.

• 30oC average ambient temperature (never exceeding 40 oC).
• 100oC average hot spot conductor temperature (never
exceeding 120oC) for 65oC average winding rise transformers.
• For 55oC average rise winding transformers, the hot-spot
temperature limit is 95oC average (never exceeding 105oC).
 Emergency transformer ratings typically vary from 130% to 150%
of nameplate ratings.
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 Calculation of Model Parameters
 The parameters of the model are determined based upon:

• nameplate data: gives the rated voltages and power.

• short circuit test: with secondary shorted, apply voltage to primary to get

rated current to flow; measure voltage and losses. Neglect shunt

admittance and determine series impedance.

• open circuit test: rated voltage is applied to primary with secondary

open; measure the primary current and losses (the test may also be

done with primary open, applying the rated voltage to the secondary,

measuring the values, then referring them back to the primary side).
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 Transformer Example
 A single phase, 100 MVA, 200/80 kV transformer has the following test data:

• short circuit: 30 kV, with 500 kW losses

• open circuit: 20 amps, with 10 kW losses

Determine the model parameters.

From the short circuit test

100 MVA 30 kV
I sc  500 A, R e  jX e  60 
200kV 500 A
2
Psc Re I sc 500 kW  R e 2 ,
Hence X e  602  22 60  Gc -jBm
From the open circuit test
rc 2002 kV 2 10kW
R
Poc  
c GcVoc  Gc 4 M  25 10 8
S
10 kW 200kV 2

20 A 200 kV
R  jX  jX
Gc  e jBm e m   10  4 10, 000 
S  B  X m 8 
10  10,
625000
   16 10  4 S
10
20 A m 26
200kV
27
 The Per-Unit System

 A key problem in analyzing power systems is the large number of

transformers.
• It would be very difficult to continually have to refer impedances to the
different sides of the transformers
 This problem is avoided by a normalization of all variables.
 This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
 Power-system quantities, such as voltage, current, power, and impedance,
are often expressed in per-unit or percent of specified base values
 Calculated by:
actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
• Actual quantity is the value in the actual units
• Base value is always a real number, with same units as actual quantity
28
 Per-Unit Conversion Procedure
 Two independent base values can be arbitrarily selected at one point in a
power system
• Usually, the base voltage and base complex power are selected for a
single-phase circuit or for one phase of a three-phase circuit
 Rules for base quantities:
• The value of base complex power is the same for the entire power
system of concern
• The ratio of the voltage bases on either side of a transformer is
selected to be the same as the ratio of the transformer voltage ratings
 For single-phase systems:
1. Pick a VA base for the entire system, SB
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB = (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB = SB/VB
5. Convert actual values to per unit.
 Note: per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not the angles.
 Also, per unit quantities no longer have units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1
29
p.u. volts)
30
Advantages of the Per-Unit System

 Transformer equivalent circuit can be simplified

 Avoids the possibility of making serious calculation errors

when referring quantities from one side of a transformer to
the other

 Per-unit impedances of electrical equipment of similar type

usually lie within a narrow numerical range when the
equipment ratings are used as base values

• Per-unit impedance data can be checked rapidly for

gross errors

31
Per-Unit Equivalent Circuits of a Single-Phase
Two-Winding Transformer

32
Per-Unit Solution

 Per-unit solution procedure:

1. Convert to per unit (many problems are already in p.u.)

2. Solve

3. Convert back to actual as necessary

 When several components are involved, the individual ratings

may be different. To convert a given impedance into the

equivalent impedance:

 ZB = (VB)2/SB

33
 Transformer Reactance Per-Unit Change of Base
Examples
 A 54 MVA transformer has a leakage reactance or 3.69%. What is the
reactance on a 100 MVA base?

100
X e 0.0369  0.0683 p.u.
54
 Transformer reactance is often specified as a percentage, say 10%. This is
a per unit value (divide by 100) on the power base of the transformer.
 Example: A 350 MVA, 230/20 kV transformer has a leakage reactance of
10%. What is the p.u. value on a 100 MVA base? What is the value in
ohms (230 kV)?
100 actual quantity
X e 0.10  0.0286 p.u. quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
350
230 2 ZB = (VB)2/SB
0.0286  15.1  34
100
 Per-Unit Example
 Solve for the current, load voltage and load power in the circuit shown
below using per unit analysis with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of
8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV.
ZB = (VB)2/SB Left 8kV 2
ZB  0.64
100 MVA
80kV 2
Z BMiddle  64
100 MVA
IB = VB/ZB = SB/VB 16kV 2 Original Circuit
Z BRight  2.56
100 MVA

Same circuit, with values expressed in per unit

V LActual  0.859  30.8 16 kV 13.7  30.8 kV
S LActual 0.1890 100 MVA 18.90 MVA

 To convert back to actual values SGActual 0.2230.8 100 MVA 22.030.8 MVA
just multiply the per unit values 100 MVA
I Middle
B  1250 Amps
by their per unit base: 80 kV
35
I Actual
Middle  0.22  30.8 Amps 275  30.8
 actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity

36
37
 The Three-Phase Per-Unit System
 Balanced three-phase circuits can be solved in per-unit on a per-phase
basis after converting ∆-load impedances to equivalent Y impedances.
 Base values can be selected either on a per-phase basis or on a three-
phase basis.
 Usually three-phase base complex power and line-to-line base voltage are
selected as base values.
3
1. Pick a 3f VA base for the entire system, B S
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB.
Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base:
VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2, LN
Z B  3  1
 1
SB 3S B SB
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!
3 1 1
4. Calculate the current base, IB: I 
3 S B 3 S B S B I1
B   B
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN
Exactly the same current bases as with single phase! 38
 Three-Phase Per-Unit Example

 Solve for the current, load voltage and load power in the circuit of slide 36,
assuming a 3f power base of 300 MVA, and line-to-line voltage bases of
13.8 kV, 138 kV and 27.6 kV (√3 larger than the 1f example voltages). Also
assume the generator is Y-connected so its line-to-line voltage is 13.8 kV.
 Convert to per unit as before. Note the system is exactly the same!

V LActual  0.859  30.8 27.6 kV 23.8  30.8 kV

 Again, analysis is exactly the S LActual 0.1890 300 MVA 56.70 MVA
same! SGActual 0.2230.8 300 MVA 66.030.8 MVA
 Differences appear when we 300 MVA
I Middle
B  1250 Amps (same current!)
convert back to actual values: 3 138 kV

quantity in per unit 

actual quantity I Actual
Middle  0.22  30.8 Amps 275  30.8
39 
base value of quantity
 actual quantity 40
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
Summary

Now that the lecture has ended, you should have learned how to:

 Know the assumptions made for an ideal transformer and

state the ideal transformer voltage and current relationships

 Know the convention for transformer polarity marks

 Understand equivalent circuits for single-phase, two-winding

transformers

 Be familiar with the per-unit system and state its advantages

41