Chapter Four

Runoff and Stream Flow

Characterization and
Measurement
4.1 Sources and components of stream
flow

 The route followed by a water particle from

the time it reaches to the ground surface is
devious. It is convenient to visualize three
main routes of travel: overland flow,
interflow, and groundwater flow.
 Overland flow
 Overland flow: is that water which travels over the
ground surface to a channel. It occurs only when
the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration
capacity. Conditions that encourage a high
infiltration rate include coarse soils, well vegetated
land, low soil moisture, and a top soil layer
made porous by insects and other burrowing
animals, gentle slopes in addition to land-use
practices that avoid soil compaction.
 In areas in which soils have a high infiltration
capacity, Overland flow may occur only
during very intense storms. Because of these
the amount of overland flow is small.
Overland flow becomes important as the
result of heavy or high intensity rains. In the
case of Ethiopia because of intense rainfall
and highly raged topography the proportion
of overland flow is significant.
Hortonian Overland Flow
(infiltration-excess overland flow)
Runoff & Rainfall Rate (mm/hour)

initial (dry) capacity

Infiltration Capacity (mm/hour)

rainfall

saturated capacity
overland flow

Time
Karoo Overland Flow 1
 Interflow: (Trough flow, storm seepage,
secondary base flow)

 Some of the water which infiltrates the soil

surface may move laterally through the upper
soil layers until it enters a stream channel. This
water, called interflow or subsurface storm
flow, moves more slowly than the surface
runoff and reaches the stream later.
 The general conditions favoring the generation of
interflow is one in which lateral conductivity in the
surface horizons of the soil is substantially greater
than the overall vertical hydraulic conductivity
through the soil profile. The proportion of total runoff
which occurs as interflow depends on the physical
features of the basin. A thin soil cover overlying rock or
“hard pan” a short distance below the soil surface favors
substantial quantities of interflow, where as uniformly
permeable soil encourages downward percolation to
groundwater.
 Downslope (lateral) flow through a soil

Throughflow

Vadose
Capillary

River
Groundwater
 Groundwater flow:

 Some precipitation may percolate downward

until it reaches the water table. This
groundwater accretion may eventually
discharge into the streams as groundwater
flow (also called base flow and dry weather
flow) if the water table intersects the stream
channels of the basin. The groundwater
contribution to stream flow can not fluctuate
rapidly because of its very low flow velocity.
 The distinction drawn between the three components
of flow are arbitrary. Water may start out as overland
flow, infiltrate and complete its trip to the stream as
subsurface storm flow; or infiltrated water may
surface, where a relatively impervious stratum
intersects a hillside, and finish its journey to the
stream as overland flow. For convenience it has
been customary to consider the total flow to be
divided into only two parts; storm, or direct runoff and
base flow. Direct runoff is presumed to consist of
surface runoff and a substantial portion of the
interflow, where as base flow is considered to be
largely groundwater.
Channel precipitation

 Thecontribution of direct precipitation on to

the water surface is normally small simply
because the perennial channel systems
occupies only a small percentage of
catchment area ( about 1 percent in Eastern
USA)
Components of Runoff
Pathways

Overland
flow
Channel
Precipitation
interflow

River

Groundwater
Flow
 4.2 Types of Hydrographs
 Used to estimate peak flow from rainfall intensity.

 hydrograph
Storm

 Hydrograph
Seasonal

 Hydrograph
Long-term
 Storm hydrograph

A hydrograph is a graph showing the rate of

flow (discharge) versus time past a specific point
in a river, or other channel or conduit carrying
flow. The rate of flow is typically expressed in
cubic meters or cubic feet per second (cms or
cfs).
 30 rainfall
Discharge and Rainfall

25
20
(mm/hr)

15 discharge

10
5
00 12 24 36 48
60 Time (hours)
 Hydrograph separation

 Because hydrographs are based on

measurements of total stream flow, no
immediate distinction can be made between the
major components.
 It would be useful to know the relative amounts
of the total stream flow derived from the two
major components Direct runoff and base flow.
 There are several models suggested to separate
between direct runoff and base flow
 Simple but less accurate method to
separate direct runoff and baseflow

 Step 1. Extend
the base flow recession
curve to a point under
0.2

the peak (x)
Step 2. Estimate
D 0.827 A
the end of runoff. This
may be done by using
the equation:
 Where
 D is the number of days between the storm peak and
the end of overland flow
 A is drainage area in Km2
 Step 3 Join point x to intersect the hydrograph at
point d. This is D – days beyond the storm peak.
 Step 4 Replace construction line with a smooth curve
passing through points x and d.
 Seasonal Hydrograph

 A typical seasonal hydrograph shows a jagged rising

limb reflecting surges in flow in response to short periods
of high precipitation; a peak flow which occurs at some
point during the wet season.
 A steep falling limb marking the onset of the dry season
and
 A relatively smooth exponential curve denoting the
period of base flow recession which ends towards the
close of the dry season.
 The recession, or fall off in stream flow each year is a
function of a drop in the groundwater table. This occurs
in response to water being drained from the aquifer to
sustain flow in the stream and may be further explained
by the fact that a falling water table equates to a
progressive drop in the hydraulic head controlling rate of
seepage to the stream (Darcy’s law)
 The base flow recession equation :
 Where
 Q = the volumetric flow rate at some
time t after the start of the recession
 Q0 = the volumetric flow rate at the  at
Q Q0 e
start of the recession.
 a = is a recession constant for the
basin (1/time unit), and
 t = time interval since the recession
started
River regimes

 The expected pattern of river flow during a year is

known as the river regime. Flow records of 20 – 30
years are required to provide a representative
pattern, since there may be considerable variations
in the seasonal discharges from year to year. The
averages of the monthly mean discharge over the
years of record calculated for each month, give the
general or expected pattern, the flow regime of the
river.
Simple regimes

 Simple regimes are those variations of river flow

throughout the year in which a simple distinction may
be made between one period of high water levels
and high runoff and one period of low water levels
and low runoff (figure 7.16). In tropical areas
evaporation tends to be high throughout the year so
that the rainfall distribution is the main determinant of
the river regime, with high runoff occurring as a
result of the summer rain.
 Awash Belo avrg.xlsx
Complex I regimes

 Characterized by at least four hydrological

phases, normally there are two low runoff
and two high runoff periods. (Figure 7.17c)
Complex II regimes

 Commonly found on most of the world’s large rivers

since normally flow through several distinct relief.
 Based on climatic factor influencing the catchment
runoff it is possible to have different regimes.
Scholars has classified based on the dominance of
either rainfall or temperature several types of river
regimes.
 Long term hydrograph

 The long term hydrograph is a plot of stream

discharge against time on a scale of years
(generally the period of record of measurement
of the stream). The nature of this graph varies
considerably according to the characteristics of
the drainage basin.
 ..\Awash Belo1.xlsx
4.3 Stream flow estimation
River gauging

 As in the measurement of precipitation,

measurement of river flow is a sampling procedure.
For springs and very small streams, accurate
volumetric quantities over timed interval can be
measured. For a large stream a continuous measure
of one variable, river level (STAGE) is related to the
DISCHARGE calculated from sampled values of
other variables, velocity and depth, so that the final
result is strictly an estimated – measurement.
Stage

 The water level at a gauging station, the most

important measurement in hydrometery, is generally
known as the stage. River stage is the elevation
above some arbitrary zero datum of the water
surface at station. The datum is sometimes taken as
mean sea level but more often is slightly below the
point of zero flow in the stream.
 The staff gauge, crest gauges, autographic
recorders, punched – tape and magnetic tape
recorders, flood warning gauges, pressure gauges,
acoustic level gauges are some of the instruments
used to measure STAGE
Discharge

 The stage record is transformed to a discharge

record by calibration. Since the control rarely has a
regular shape for which discharge can be computed,
calibration is accomplished by relating field
measurements of discharge with the simultaneous
river stage.
 Stage discharge relations
 Periodic meter measurements of flow and
simultaneous stage observations provide data for
calibration curve called a rating curve or stage –
discharge relation.
Measurement of velocity

 The simplest method for determining a velocity of

flow is by timing the movement of a float over a
known distance. Surface floats comprising any
available floating object are often used in rough
preliminary survey; these measurements give only
the surface velocity over a depth. A factor of 0.7 is
recommended for a river of 1 m depth with a factor
of 0.8 for 6 m or greater
 The determination of discharge at a permanent river
gauging station is best made by measuring the flow
velocities with a current meters.
Stage discharge relationship

 The stage discharge relationship can be represented

in three ways: as a graphical plot of stage versus
discharge (the rating curve), in a tabular form (rating
table), and as a mathematical equation,
discharge ,Q, in terms of stage, H, (rating equation)
 The rating curve. All the discharge measurements,
Q, are plotted against the corresponding mean
stages, H, on suitable arithmetic scales. The array of
points usually lies on a curve which is approximately
parabolic and a best fit curve should be drawn
through the points by eye.
 The rating table when a satisfactory rating curve
has been established, values of H and Q may be
read off the curve at convenient intervals and a
rating table is constructed by interpolation for
required intervals of stage
 The rating equation: The rating curve can often
be represented approximately by an equation of
the form Q=a*Hb or Q = a (H – H0)b , H0 is the
stage at Q = 0
 The values of the constants a, b and H0 can
be found by a least square fit using the
measured data and trial values of H0 and with
b expected to be within limits depending on
the shape of the cross section. The equation
can then be used for converting stage values
into discharge by digital computer.
 The manning equation

 The manning equation provides a quick means of

estimating the average velocity of large flows in streams,
chanelized water ways, or canals, in situation that one
reason or another, preclude other forms of
measurements.

1  2 3 12 
V  R S 
n 
 Where
 V = average stream velocity (m/s)
 R = hydraulic radius (m). The hydraulic radius may
be determined by dividing cross sectional area of
flow (square meter) by the length of wetted
perimeter.
 S = gradient of the stream dimensionless. This is the
slope of the water surface. It may be estimated from
spot heights or contours, taken from topographic
map of the area and
 n = Manning roughness coefficient (dimensionless)
 The following are typical values for n
 Smooth – concrete lined canals 0.012
 Straight unlined earth canals 0.020
 Mountain streams with rocky beds 0.045
 Winding natural streams with weeds 0.035
 Natural streams with little vegetation 0.025
 Example

 A concrete lined water way is given for discharging

stream flow through the down town area of a city. The
water way has a rectangular shaped cross section. The
invert (base) width of this recently built structure is 25
feet and the depth of water when measured from a staff
gauge attached to the wall was 12 feet. The gradient of
the water surface has been determined from surveyed
elevation of the water way floor to be 0.0008
 use the manning equation to obtain a quick
estimate of the velocity of flow in the water
way, and
 Determine the discharge for assessing the
flood potential to parts of the city
R = (Cross sectional area)/wetted perimeter
=( (25 * 12) feet2)/12+12+25 feet = 6.12 ft =
1.87 meter where 1 feet = 0.3048 meter
 V = ((1.87)2/3(0.0008)1/2)/0.012
 V = 3.57 m/s
 Discharge = Q = V.A = 3.57 m/s * 27.9 m 2 =
99.6 m3/s
4.4 Rainfall Runoff relationships

 The derivation of relatioships between the

rainfall over a catchment area and the
resulting flow in a river is a fundamental
problem for the hydrologist.
 Estimating runoff or discharge from rainfall
measurment is complex for short duration
and simpler for longer duration like annual
bases.
Volume of surface runoff:
Curve number method mainly for storm runoff
applicable for event based runoff

( P  0.2 S ) 2
Q
( P  0 .8 S )
1000
S  10
CN
IfP  0.2 S
Otherwise
Q 0
S = potential maximum retention after runoff begins
unit of rainfall should be in inch
If rainfall is in mm then S is calculated using the following
formula:
  1000 
S 25.4  10 
 CN 
 Where
 CN is known as curve number as sugested
by American Soil Conservation Service
(SCS)
 Q is volume of runoff in inches
 P is rainfall depth in inches
Some example of CN values for different type
of soil (page 145 Env.Hydrology)

Land use description A B C D

Commercial, town houses 80 85 90 95
Cultivated with conventional tillage 72 81 88 91
Woods or forest thin stand and poor cover 45 66 77 83
Pavement and roofs 100 100 100 100
Pasture or range poor condition 68 79 86 89
Farmsteads 59 74 82 86
 Hydrologic Soil Groups
Group A soils have low runoff potential and high infiltration rates even when thoroughly
wetted. They consist chiefly of deep, well to excessively drained sand or gravel and
have a high rate of water transmission (greater than 0.30 in/hr). Soil Texture: Sand,
loamy sand, or sandy loam

Group B soils have moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist
chiefly of moderately deep to deep, moderately to well drained soils with moderately
fine to moderately coarse textures. These soils have a moderate rate of water
transmission (0.15-0.30 in/hr). Soil Texture: Silt loam or loam

Group C soils have low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly of
soils with a layer that impedes downward movement of water and soils with moderately
fine to fine texture. These soils have a low rate of water transmission (0.05-0.15 in/hr).
Soil Texture: Sandy clay loam

Group D soils have high runoff potential. They have very low infiltration rates when
thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly of clay soils with a high swelling potential, soils
with a permanent high water table, soils with a clay pan or clay layer at or near the
surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious material. These soils have a very low
rate of water transmission (0-0.05 in/hr). Soil Texture: Clay loam, silty clay loam,
sandy clay, silty clay, or clay
 IsCurve number method applicable to
estimate annual runoff from annual rainfall?
 Rational Method: used for small
catchment
 Used to estimate peak flow from rainfall intensity.
Q p (m 3 S  1 ) 0.278Ci(mmh 1 ) A(km 2 )
 Where
 Qp=Peak flow
 C = Coefficient of runoff
 I = intensity of rainfall in time Tc
 A = area of catchment
 Values of C vary from 0.05 flat sandy area to 0.95 for impervious
urban surfaces.
 Example of C value
A B C D
Land 0- 2- 6%+ 0- 2- 6%+ 0- 2- 6%+ 0- 2- 6%+
use 2% 6% 2% 6% 2% 6% 2% 6%
Industr .67 .68 .68 .68 .68 .69 .68 .69 .69 .69 .69 .760
ial
Agricul .08 .13 .16 .11 .15 .21 .14 .29 .26 .18 .23 .31
tural
Resde .25 .28 .31 .27 .30 .35 .30 .33 .38 .33 .36 .42
ntial
Open .05 .10 .14 .08 .13 .19 .12 .17 .24 .16 .21 .28
space
4.5 Flow frequency

 Involves analyzing the frequency of

occurrence of specific river flow or the length
of time for which particular river flows are
expected to be exceeded.
 Good reliable hydrological records are
essential.
 Procedures for constructing flow duration
curve.

1. Take the n years of flow records from a river

gauging station. There are 365 * n daily mean
discharges
2. Compile the frequency of occurrence in
selected discharge classes, starting from the
higher values
3. Calculate the cumulative frequency that equals
or exceeds the given discharge class.
4. Calculate the percentage cumulative frequency by
dividing the cumulative frequency for each class by
total number of days.
5. plot on a natural paper the percentage time as
abscissa and discharge as ordinate, this will give
flow duration curve, which gives the percentage of
time during which any selected discharge may be
equaled or exceeded
 The shape of the flow duration curve gives a good
indication of a catchments and characerstic response to
its average rainfall history. An initially steeply sloped
curve results from a very variable discharge , usually
from small catchments with little storage where the
stream flow reflects directly the rainfall pattern. Flow
duration curves that have a very flat slope indicate little
variation in flow regime, the resultant of the damping
effects of large storage.
4.6 Flood frequency

 Flood frequency analysis entails the estimation of

peak discharge which is likely to be equaled or
exceeded on average once a specified period, T
years. This is called the T years event and the peak,
QT, is said to have a return period or recurrence
interval of T years.
 Assuming that stream gauging station records are
available, the traditional method of determining flood
frequency is based on the following stapes:
1. Compile a tabulation that includes the highest
discharge for each year of record of the stream
2. Assign a ranking number m to each peak flow. This
ranking number starts with number 1 for the highest
flow and continues
3. Compute a recurrence interval for each data set by
using the following relationship
 Where

 T = the recurrence interval n 1

(years) T
 n = the number of events of m
record (dimensionless)
 m = ranked position of the listing
4. Compile a graphical plot of discharge (on the y
axis) against probable recurrence interval of high
flows ( on the x-axis). For this purpose use either
Semi – log paper ( with discharge plotted on the
arithmetic scale) or Log-log paper, whichever best
allows a straight line fit to plotted data
5. Fit a straight line to plotted data point
6. Extend this best fit straight line to enable prediction
to be made of larger recurrence interval
 While this procedure presents a very useful means
of predicting general trends of flood flow on a desired
recurrence interval basis, caution may need to be
exercised in using these prediction for design. This is
because:
– Periods of short stream – gauging records may not include
a sufficient sampling of high flows to make discharges
associated with long recurrence intervals a valid one; and
– One or more plots representing unusually high flood
discharges may not readily be fitted to a straight line.
– Generally it is recommended not to make a 50 year
projection on less than about 30 years of record.
 In developing countries to solve the problem the
following method is used
– Manipulating data that are available
– Applying a suitable factor of safety to the design
parameter,
 The concept of the return period states
that the T year event QT, is the average
chance of exceedance once every T years
over a long period.
 Reading assignment (Flood probabilities)
 4.7 Draughts and frequency of low flows

 Draughts are basically caused by rainfall

deficiencies. This has an effect on the river flow
 During low precipitation there will be low flows.
Particularly those rivers which act as a main supply of
water for the urban dwellers and industries must be
closely examined for the low flows that they will
encounter during draught periods.
 The low flow of river are analyzed by some index mainly
using the flow duration curve. There are about three
indicies
1. the flow exceeded 95 % of the time
Q95
2. the quarter of the average flow of a
river is also used as index
3. Q95 divided to catchment area
expressed in mm/day also serves as
low flow index
 Man’s influence on runoff

 In arid and semi arid regions and those

disturbed by humans ( through agriculture,
urbanization, and mining) infiltration capacity is a
limiting factor and Horton overland flow is the
dominant storm runoff process
 Modification of the land surface during urbanization
produce changes in the type or magnitude of runoff
processes, and cause the planner many complex
problems. The increased storm runoff leads to
difficulties of storm drainage control, stream channel
maintenance; groundwater recharge, and stream
water quality. Solutions of these problems are costly,
although many of the difficulties and costs can be
avoided if planners understand runoff processes in
an urban region and take them into account early in
the planning process.
 Man’s influence on runoff
(contd.)

 The major change in runoff process results from

covering parts of the catchment with impervious
roofs, sidewalks, roadways and parking lots. The
infiltration capacity of these area is lowered to
zero, and many areas that remain soil covered
are tramped to an almost impervious state, so
that the volume and rate of Horton overland flow
is increased.
 Gutters, drains, sewers are laid in the
urbanized area to convey runoff rapidly to
stream channels. The increase of storm
runoff has many costly consequences in
urban areas. Frequent over bank flooding
damages houses and gardens or disrupts
traffic.
 Theincreased amounts of water that
generate storm runoff are not available for
recharging the groundwater to supply
baseflow during dry weather.
 100

Impervious area (percent of

10
land area)

1
100 1000 10000
Population density (persons
per sq.miles)