COMPUTER GRAPHICS &

MULTIMEDIA
APPLICATIONS
SCSA1503
UNIT IV – PART I
14/10/2024 1
Syllabus

14/10/2024 2018 - 2022 2

Syllabus

14/10/2024 2018 - 2022 3

Course Objective(CO)
CO1: Construct lines and circles for the given input.
CO2: Apply 2D transformation techniques to transform the shapes to fit
them as per the picture definition.
CO3: Construct splines, curves and perform 3D transformations
CO4: Apply colour and transformation techniques for various
applications.
CO5: Analyse the fundamentals of animation, virtual reality, and
underlying technologies.
CO6: Develop photo shop applications

14/10/2024 2018 - 2022 4

 VISIBLE SURFACE
DETECTION METHODS
Basic classification

• Two basic classifications –based on either an object or projected image ,

which is going to be displayed
i)Object-space Methods- compares objects and parts of objects to each other
within a scene definition to determine which surfaces are visible
ii)Image-space Methods- visibility is determined point-by-point at each pixel
position on the projection plane
Image-space Method is the most commonly used method
Back-face detection
• Back-Face detection, also known as Plane Equation method, is an object
space method in which objects and parts of objects are compared to find
out the visible surfaces.
• Let us consider a triangular surface that whose visibility needs to decided.
• The idea is to check if the triangle will be facing away from the viewer or
not.
• If it does so, discard it for the current frame and move onto the next one.
• Each surface has a normal vector. If this normal vector is pointing in the
direction of the center of projection, then it is a front face and can be seen
by the viewer.
• If this normal vector is pointing away from the center of projection, then it
is a back face and can not be seen by the viewer.
Back-face detection
• To find the back faces of a polyhedron.
• Consider a polygon surface with parameters A,B,C and D.
• A point (x,y,z) is inside the polyhedrons’ backface only if
Ax+By+Cz+D<0
• We can simply say that the z component of the polygon’s normal is less than
zero, then the point is on the back face.
Back-face detection
• Object space algorithm: Back-Face removal • If we take V as the vector in the viewing
• No faces on the back of the object are displayed. direction from the eye and N as the normal
vector to the polygon’s surface, then we can
• In general - about half of objects faces are back state the condition as
faces
• Algorithm will remove about half of the total V.N>0
polygons in the image from further visibility tests.
then that face is the back face.
NOTE: Right Handed coordinate System
Back-face detection
• Thus, for the right-handed system, if the Z component of the normal vector is
negative, then it is a back face. If the Z component of the vector is positive,
then it is a front face.
Back-face detection
• The Back-face detection method is very simple. For the left-handed system, if
the Z component of the normal vector is positive, then it is a back face. If the
Z component of the vector is negative, then it is a front face.
Back-face detection
Depth buffer method (or) z-buffer method
• Image Space Method.
• Compares surface depths at
each pixel position
throughout the scene on
the projection plane.
• It is usually applied to
images containing polygons.
• Very fast method.
Depth buffer algorithm
• For each projected (x, y) pixel position of a polygon, calculate the depth z
(if not already known)
• If z < depth(x, y), compute the surface colour at that position and set
depth(x, y) = z
frameBuff(x, y) = surfColour(x, y)
- At a surface position (x,y) the depth is calculated from the plane
equation:
 Ax  By  D
z
C
- the depth of the next position z’ becomes, for each successive position
along scanline:
 A( x  1)  By  D
z' 
C
A
z ' z 
C
Depth buffer algorithm
Disadvantages
• The depth buffer Algorithm is not always practical because of the enormous size of depth and
intensity arrays.
• Generating an image with a raster of 500 x 500 pixels requires 2, 50,000 storage locations for
each array.
• Even though the frame buffer may provide memory for intensity array, the depth array remains
large.
• To reduce the amount of storage required, the image can be divided into many smaller images,
and the depth buffer algorithm is applied to each in turn.
• For example, the original 500 x 500 faster can be divided into 100 rasters each 50 x 50 pixels.
• Processing each small raster requires array of only 2500 elements, but execution time grows
because each polygon is processed many times.
• Subdivision of the screen does not always increase execution time instead it can help reduce the
work required to generate the image. This reduction arises because of coherence between
small regions of the screen.
A-buffer Method
• Extension of Depth-buffer -> accumulation buffer(A-Buffer)
• A- Antialiased, Area-averaged, Accumulation – Buffer.
• Drawback of Depth-buffer-can find one visible surface at each pixel
position. Cannot accumulate intensity values for more than one surface.
• Each buffer position can reference a linked-list of surfaces.
A-buffer
A-buffer

• Each position has 2 fields.

• Depth field – stores a positive or negative real number
• Intensity field- stores surface intensity information or a pointer value.
A-buffer
• If depth is >= 0(single surface), then the surface data field stores the depth of that pixel
position as before
• If depth < 0 (multiple surfaces)then the data filed stores a pointer to a linked list of
surface data.
• Surface information in the A-buffer includes:
• RGB intensity components
• Opacity parameter
• Depth
• Percent of area coverage
• Surface identifier
• Other surface rendering parameters
• The algorithm proceeds just like the depth buffer algorithm
• The depth and opacity values are used to determine the final colour of a pixel
Scan-line method
• Idea is to intersect each polygon
with a particular scanline. Solve
hidden surface problem for just
that scanline.
• Requires a depth buffer equal to
only one scanline
• The cost of tiling scene is roughly
proportional to its depth
complexity
• Efficient way to tile shallowly-
occluded scenes
Scan-line method
• It is an image-space method to identify • The active list stores only those edges that
visible surface. This method has a cross the scan-line in order of increasing x.
depth information for only single scan- • Also a flag is set for each surface to
line. indicate whether a position along a scan-
• In order to require one scan-line of line is either inside or outside the surface.
depth values, we must group and • Pixel positions across each scan-line are
process all polygons intersecting a processed from left to right.
given scan-line at the same time before • At the left intersection with a surface, the
processing the next scan-line. surface flag is turned on and at the right,
• Two important tables, edge the flag is turned off.
table and polygon table, are • You only need to perform depth
maintained for this. calculations when multiple surfaces have
• To facilitate the search for surfaces their flags turned on at a certain scan-line
crossing a given scan-line, an active list position.
BSP Tree Method
· A binary space partitioning tree (bsp–tree) is a binary tree whose nodes
contain polygons.
· Binary space partitioning, or BSP, divides space into distinct sections by building a
tree representing that space.
· Used to sort polygons.
· A BSP takes the polygons and divides them into two groups bychoosing a plane,
usually taken from the set of polygons,
and divides the world into two spaces.
· It decides which side of the plane each polygon is on, or it may also be on the
plane.
· If a polygon intersects the splitting plane it must be split into two separate
polygons, one on each side of the plane.
· The tree is built by choosing a partitioning plane and dividing the remaining
polygons into two or three lists: Front, Back and On lists – done by
comparing the normal vector of the plane with that of each polygon.
BSP Tree Method
· For each node in a bsp-tree the polygons in the left subtree lie behind the polygon at the node while the polygons in
the right
subtree lie in front of the polygon at the node.
· Each polygon has a fixed normal vector, and front and back are measured relative to this fixed normal.
· Once a bsp-tree is constructed for a scene, the polygons are rendered by an in order traversal of the bsp-tree.
· Recursive algorithms for generating a bsp-tree and then using the bsp-tree to render a scene are presented below.

Algorithm for Generating a BSP–Tree

1.Select any polygon (plane) in the scene for the root.
2.Partition all the other polygons in the scene to the back (left subtree) or the front (right subtree).
3.Split any polygons lying on both sides of the root (see below).
4.Build the left and right subtrees recursively.
BSP-Tree Rendering Algorithm (In order tree traversal)
If the eye is in front of the root, then
Display the left subtree (behind)
Display the root
Display the right subtree (front)
If eye is in back of the root, then
Display the right subtree (front)
Display the root
Display the left subtree (back)
Depth- sorting or painter’s algorithm
• Depth sorting method uses both image
space and object-space operations. The
depth-sorting method performs two basic
functions −
• First, the surfaces are sorted in order of
decreasing depth.
• Second, the surfaces are scan-converted in
order, starting with the surface of greatest
depth.
• The scan conversion of the polygon surfaces
is performed in image space. This method
for solving the hidden-surface problem is
often referred to as the painter's algorithm.
Area subdivision method
• The area-subdivision method takes advantage by locating those view areas
that represent part of a single surface.
• Divide the total viewing area into smaller and smaller rectangles until each
small area is the projection of part of a single visible surface or no surface
at all.
• Continue this process until the subdivisions are easily analyzed as
belonging to a single surface or until they are reduced to the size of a single
pixel.
• An easy way to do this is to successively divide the area into four equal
parts at each step.
• There are four possible relationships that a surface can have with a
specified area boundary.
• The tests for determining surface visibility
within an area can be stated in terms of
these four classifications. No further
subdivisions of a specified area are needed if
one of the following conditions is true −
• All surfaces are outside surfaces with
respect to the area.
• Only one inside, overlapping or surrounding
surface is in the area.
• A surrounding surface obscures all other
surfaces within the area boundaries.
Octree methods
• Extension of area-subdivision method
• Projecting octree nodes onto the viewplane
• Front-to-back order  Depth-first traversal
• The nodes for the front suboctants of octant 0 are visited before the nodes for
the four back suboctants.
Ray-casting method
• Trace the paths of light rays.
• Line of sight from a pixel position on the viewplane through a scene
• Determine which objects intersect this line
• Identify the visible surface whose intersection point is closest to the pixel
 Infinite number of light rays
• Consider only rays that pass through pixel positions
• Trace the light-ray paths backward from the pixels.
Ray-casting method

· The ray casting algorithm for hidden

surfaces employs no special data structures.
· A ray is fired from the eye through each
pixel on the screen in order to locate the
polygon in the scene closest to the eye.
· The color and intensity of this polygon
is displayed at the pixel.

Ray casting is easy to implement for

polygonal models
because the only calculation required is the
intersection of a line with a plane.
Ray Casting Algorithm

Algorithm
1.Through each pixel, fire a ray to the eye:
2.Intersect the ray with each polygonal plane.
3.Reject intersections that lie outside the polygon.
4.Accept the closest remaining intersection -- that is, the intersection with
the smallest value of the parameter along the line.

• The main advantage of the ray casting algorithm for hidden surfaces is that ray
casting can be used even with non-polygonal surfaces.
• All that is needed to implement the ray casting algorithm for hidden surfaces
is a line/surface intersection algorithm for each distinct surface type.
• The main disadvantage of ray casting is that the method is slow. Ray
casting is a brute force technique that makes no use of pixel coherence.
ILLUMINATION
MODELS
ILLUMINATION MODELS
• An illumination model (lighting model) is used to calculate the color of the
illuminated positions of an object.
• The procedure for applying a lighting model to obtain a pixel colors for all
projected surface positions is called surface rendering.
• In computer graphics, illumination models are usually easy to compute
approximations of physical laws that describe surface-effect lighting.
• A surface-rendering algorithm uses the intensity calculations from an
illumination model to determine the light intensity for all projected pixel
positions for the various surfaces in a scene.
• Surface rendering can be performed by applying the illumination model to
every visible surface point.
ILLUMINATION MODELS
• Illumination model, also known as
Shading model or Lightning model,
is used to calculate the intensity of
light that is reflected at a given
point on surface. There are three
factors on which lightning effect
depends on:
1. Light Source
2. Surface
3. Observer
1. LIGHT SOURCES

• Light Emitting sources – Emits the light

• Light Reflecting sources – Reflecting surfaces such as walls of
a room.
 1. LIGHT SOURCES: Point Source and Distributed Source

1.Point Sources – The source Point Source

that emit rays in all directions (A
bulb in a room).
2.Parallel Sources – Can be
considered as a point source Distributed Source
which is far from the surface
(The sun).
3.Distributed Sources – Rays
originate from a finite area (A
tubelight).
3D Object without light and with light
2. Surface - Opaque, dull &
transparent surfaces
• When light falls on a surface part of
it is reflected and part of it is
absorbed.
• Now the surface structure decides
the amount of reflection and
absorption of light.
• The position of the surface and
positions of all the nearby surfaces
also determine the lightning effect.
3. Observer

• The observer’s position and sensor spectrum sensitivities also affect

the lightning effect.
Basic illumination Models
• Ambient – surface exposed to indirect light reflected from
nearby objects.
• Diffuse – reflection from incident light with equal intensity
in all directions. Depends on surface properties.
Diffuse reflection occurs on the surfaces which are rough
or grainy. In this reflection the brightness of a point
depends upon the angle made by the light source and the
surface.
• Specular – Light sources create highlights or bright spots.
COMPONENTS OF REFLECTIONS
• The amount of incident light depends on the orientation of the surface relative to the light source direction.
ambient diffuse

specular final
Lambert’s cosine Law
• We assume that the diffuse reflections from the surface are
scattered with equal intensity in all directions, independent of
the viewing directions.
• Such surfaces are sometimes referred to as ideal diffuse
reflectors. They are also called Lambertian reflectors, since
radiated light energy from any point on the surface is governed
by Lambert’s cosine law.
• Lambert’s cosine Law: Radiant energy from any small surface,
in any direction say θ, relative to the surface normal is
proportional to cos θ
Reflection parameters
If the ambient light of the scene is I a and ka is a surfce ambient

reflection parameter, the contribution to surface reflection at any

point is I ambient ka I a .

For a light source I l and surface reflection parameter kd

(independent of ambient relection parameter ka ), the diffused

reflection is I l ,diffuse kd I l cos  .

Specular Reflection
• Phong Model is an empirical model for Specular Reflection
which provides us with the formula for calculation the
reflected intensity Ispec.
I spec = W( Ɵ)Il cos n (ɸ ) = Ks Il cos n (ɸ )
Where,
L: direction of light source
N: normal to the surface
R: direction of reflected ray
V: direction of observer
Ɵ: Angle between L and R
SPECULAR REFLECTION
• Models shiny and glossy surfaces (like metal,plastic, etc..) with highlights
• Reflectance intensity changes with reflected angle
• An ideal specular surface (mirror) reflects light exclusively in one direction: R
• Glossy objects are not ideal mirrors and reflect in the immediate vicinity of R
Specular Reflection
• In this figure, we use R to represent the
unit vector in the direction of ideal
specular reflection;
• L to represent the unit vector directed
toward the point light source; and V as
the unit vector pointing to the viewer
from the surface position.
• Angle ϴ is the viewing angle relative to
the specular-reflection direction R.
• For an ideal reflector (perfect mirror),
incident light is reflected only in the
specular-reflection direction. In this case,
we would only see reflected light when
vectors V and R coincide (ϴ = 0).
PHONG MODEL - PHONG BUI TOUNG
• A model for approximating the non ideal reflection is the Phong specular-
reflection model where V is the unit vector in the direction of the viewer
and R is the mirror reflection direction.
• This is an empirical model, which is not based on physics, but physical
observation. Phong observed that for very shiny surfaces the specular
highlight was small and the intensity fell off rapidly, while for duller surfaces
it was larger and fell off more slowly. He decided to let the reflected
intensity be a function of (cos a)n with n >= 200 for a shiny surface and n
small for a dull surface. For a perfect reflector n equals infinity, and for a
piece of cardboard n equals 0 or 1. In the diagram below we can see how
the function (cos a)n behaves for different values of n.
I spec = W( Ɵ)Il cos n (ɸ ) = Ks Il cos n (ɸ )
Combined specular and diffuse reflections
Warn Model
• The Warn model provides a method for simulating studio lighting effects by
controlling light intensity in different directions.
• Light sources are modeled as points on a reflecting surface, using the Phong
model for the surface points.
• Then the intensity in different directions is controlled by selecting values for
the Phong exponent.
• In addition, light controls and spotlighting, used by studio photographers
can be simulated in the Warn model.
• Flaps are used to control the amount of light emitted by a source in various
directions.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S3JzlOr1eH4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nK6pYXRHTVU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cLnuoQ6pIKk
Halftones
• The process of generating a binary pattern of black and white dots from an image is
termed halftoning.
• In traditional newspaper and magazine production, this process is carried out
photographically by projection of a transparency through a 'halftone screen' onto
film.
• The pictures produced by halftoning process are called halftones. The screen is a
glass plate with a grid etched into it.
• Different screens can be used to control the size and shape of the dots in the
halftoned image.
• In computer graphics, halftone reproductions are approximated using rectangular
pixel regions, say 2x 2 pixels or 3x 3 pixels.
• These regions arc called halftone patterns or pixel patterns. figure (e) shown the
halftone patterns to create number of intensity levels.
Dithering Techniques
• Dithering refers to techniques for approximating halftones without reducing
resolution, as pixel grid patterns do.
• The term dithering is also applied to halftone approximation methods using pixel
grids, and sometimes it is used to refer to colour halftone approximations only.
• Dithering is the attempt by a computer program to approximate a color from a
mixture of other colors when the required color is not available.
• For example, dithering occurs when a color is specified for a Web page that a
browser on a particular operating system can't support.
• The browser will then attempt to replace the requested color with an
approximation composed of two or more other colors it can produce.
• The result may or may not be acceptable to the graphic designer. It may also appear
somewhat grainy since it's composed of different pixel intensities rather than a
single intensity over the colored space.
Dithering Techniques
• Random values added to pixel intensities to • Each input intensity is first scaled to the
break up contours are often referred as dither range 0 ≤ I ≤ n2. If the intensity I is to be
noise.
applied to screen position (x, y), we have
• Numbers of methods are used to generate to calculate row and column numbers for
intensity variations. Ordered dither methods
generate intensity variations with a one-to-one the either matrix as
mapping of points in a scene to the display i= (x mod n) + 1 and j=(y mod n) + 1
pixels.
• If I > D1(i, j) the pixel at position (x, y) is
• To obtain n2 intensity levels, it is necessary to
set up an n x n dither matrix whose elements turned on; otherwise the pixel is not
are discrete positive integers in the range of 0 to turned on. Typically, the number of
n-1. intensity levels is taken to be a multiple
• The matrix elements for D2 and D3 are in the of 2.
same order as the pixel mask for setting up 2 x 2 • High order dither matrices can be
and 3 x 3 pixel grids respectively.
obtained from lower order matrices with
• For bi-level system we have to determine
display intensity values by comparing input the recurrence relation.
intensities to the matrix elements.
Dithering Techniques