Chapter 1

Introduction

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Down Approach
Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR 7th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
All material copyright 1996-2016
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
Pearson/Addison Wesley
April 2016
Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-2
The network core
 mesh of
interconnected
routers
 packet-switching:
hosts break
application-layer
messages into
packets
• forward packets from
one router to the
next, across links on
path from source to
destination
• each packet Introduction 1-3
Packet-switching: store-and-
forward
L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to

one-hop numerical
transmit (push out) L- example:
bit packet into link at R
bps  L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward:  R = 1.5 Mbps
entire packet must  one-hop
arrive at router before transmission delay
 it
end-end
can be delay = 2L/R
transmitted = 5 sec
(assuming
on next linkzero more on delay shortly …
propagation delay) Introduction 1-4
Packet Switching: queueing delay,
loss
R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 if arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds
transmission rate of link for a period of time:
• packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on
link
• packets can be dropped (lost) if memory
(buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-5
Two key network-core
functions
routing: determines
source-destination route forwarding: move
taken by packets packets from router’s
 routing algorithms input to appropriate
router output
routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
1
011

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction 1-6
Alternative core: circuit
switching
end-end resources
allocated to, reserved
for “call” between
source & dest:
 in diagram, each link has
four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in
top link and 1st circuit
in right link.
 dedicated resources: no
sharing
• circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not
used by call (no sharing) Introduction 1-7
Circuit switching: FDM versus
TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-8
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
packet switching allows more users to use
network!
example:
 1 Mb/s link
 each user: N

…..
• 100 kb/s when “active” users
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link

 circuit-switching:
• 10 users
 packet switching:
Q: how did we get value 0.0004
• with 35 users,
probability > 10 active Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
at same time is less
than .0004 *
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: h ttp://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/
Introduction 1-9
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
is packet switching a “slam dunk
 winner?”
great for bursty data
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and
loss
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
• bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps
• still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit
switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-
switching)? Introduction 1-10
Internet structure: network of
networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
• residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
• so that any two hosts can send packets to each
other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
• evolution was driven by economics and
national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current
Internet structure

Introduction 1-11
Internet structure: network of
networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-12
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other
access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-13
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to one global
transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic
agreement.access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-14
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-15
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors …. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
access
…
access
net net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-16
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect
access nets to ISPs

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-17
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google,
Microsoft, Akamai) may run their own network, to
bring services, content close to end users
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-18
Internet structure: network of
networks
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IX IX IX
P P P
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

• “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
• content provider network (e.g., Google): private network
that connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing
Introduction 1-19
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

POP: point-of-presence
to/from backbone

peering
… … …
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-20
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-21
How do loss and delay
occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds
output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-22
Four sources of packet
delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dproc: nodal dqueue: queueing
processing delay
 check bit errors  time waiting at
 determine output link output link for
 typically < msec transmission
 depends on Introduction 1-23
Four sources of packet
delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dtrans: transmission dprop: propagation delay:
delay:  d: length of physical link
 L: packet length (bits)  s: propagation speed
 R: link bandwidth
dtrans (bps)
and dprop (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R very different  dprop = d/s
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: h ttp://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay Introduction 1-24
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 cars “propagate” at  time to “push”

100 km/hr entire caravan
 toll booth takes 12 sec through toll booth
to service car (bit onto highway =
transmission time) 12*10 = 120 sec
 car ~ bit; caravan ~  time for last car to
packet propagate from 1st
 Q: How long until to 2nd toll both:
caravan is lined up 100km/(100km/hr)
before 2nd toll booth? = 1 hr
 A: 62 minutes
Introduction 1-25
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 suppose cars now “propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to
service a car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars
serviced at first booth?
• A: Yes! after 7 min, first car arrives at second
booth; three cars still at first booth

Introduction 1-26
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing
 R: link bandwidth

delay
(bps)
 L: packet length (bits)
 a: average packet
arrival rate
traffic intensity
= La/R
 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0
 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay
infinite!
La/R -> 1
* Check online interactive animation on queuing and loss
Introduction 1-27
“Real” Internet delays and
routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look
like?
 traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router
along end-end Internet path towards
destination. For all i:
• sends three packets that will reach router i
on path towards destination
• router i will return packets to sender
• sender times interval between transmission
and reply. 3 probes
3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-28
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at www.traceroute.org

Introduction 1-29
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka
lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-30
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at
which bits transferred between
sender/receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time

server, with
server sends link capacity
pipe that can carry link capacity
pipe that can carry
file ofbits
F bits fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec fluid at rate
Rc bits/sec
to(fluid)
send into
to client
pipe Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-31
Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end
throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end

throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck
link onlink
end-end path that constrains end-end
throughput
Introduction 1-32
Throughput: Internet
scenario
 per-connection
end-end Rs
throughput: Rs Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: Rc or
R
Rs is often
bottleneck Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more
examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Introduction 1-33