INSTITUTE : University institute of

Biotechnology
DEPARTMENT : UIBT

SAMPLING
DISCOVER . LEARN . EMPOWER
Course Objective and Outcome
Objectives:
• The primary objective of this course is to develop a research orientation
among the students and to acquaint them with fundamentals of research
methods
• Enable students to understand preparation of research design.
• To understand formulation of research problem.
Subject Outcome:
• Students will gain the knowledge about research and research design
• Disciples will learn the formulation of research problem.
• Understudies will learn to solve new research problem by using different
research design.
• Students will learn of research report writing and publishing of research work

2
 Contents
• Concept of Sampling
• Characteristics of Good Sample
• Sampling Selection Stages
• Sampling Techniques: Probability and Non-Probability
• Sampling Frame
• Sampling Units
• Errors in Sample
• Sample Size
• Factors Affecting Sample Size
Introduction
• Sampling is a statistical procedure that is concerned with the
selection of the individual observation;
• it helps us to make statistical inferences about the population.
• A sample is a portion or a subgroup of an entire
group (called the population) from which an
estimate can be made for the entire group.
• A sampling frame is the source material or device from which
a sample is drawn.
• It is a list of all those within a population who can be sampled,
and may include individuals, households or institutions
Sampling
 Characteristics of a Good Sample
1. Sample design should be a representative sample: A researcher selects a
relatively small number for a sample from an entire population. This sample
needs to closely match all the characteristics of the entire population. If the
sample used in an experiment is a representative sample then it will help
generalize the results from a small group to large universe being studied.

2. Sample design should have small sampling error: Sampling error is the
error caused by taking a small sample instead of the whole population for study.
Sampling error refers to the discrepancy that may result from judging all on the
basis of a small number. Sampling error is reduced by selecting a large sample
and by using efficient sample design and estimation strategies.
Characteristics of a Good Sample
• 3. Sample design should be economically viable: Studies have a limited
budget called the research budget. The sampling should be done in such a
way that it is within the research budget and not too expensive to be
replicated.
• 4. Sample design should have marginal systematic bias: Systematic bias
results from errors in the sampling procedures which cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. The best bet for researchers is to
detect the causes and correct them.
• 5. Results obtained from the sample should be generalized and
applicable to the whole universe: The sampling design should be created
keeping in mind that samples that it covers the whole universe of the study
and is not limited to a part.
Sample Selection Stages
Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability sampling method
will be chosen

Plan procedure
for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork
Polling
Q. Population is bigger unit or sample?
•Population/Sample

•Sampling Frame is not :

•Sample/Device/Technique
 Probability versus Nonprobability
• Probability Samples: This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that every element of the
population gets an equal chance to be part of the selected sample. It’s alternatively known as random
sampling.
• Non probability Samples: It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant on the
researcher’s ability to select elements for a sample. Outcome of sampling might be biased and makes
difficult for all the elements of population to be part of the sample equally. This type of sampling is also
known as non-random sampling.
 Sampling
• The process of using a small number of items or parts of larger population
to make a conclusions about the whole population

Selecting samples
Population
Sample
Individual cases

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Need of Sample
Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when

•A survey of the entire population is impracticable

•Budget constraints restrict data collection

•Time constraints restrict data collection

•Results from data collection are needed quickly

Sampling Techniques

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Two Major Categories of Sampling
• Probability sampling
• Known, nonzero probability for every
element
• Nonprobability sampling
• Probability of selecting any particular
member is unknown
 Probability Sampling
• The sampling method in which all the members of the population have a pre-specified and
an equal chance to be a part of the sample.
• This technique is based on the randomization principle, wherein the procedure is so
designed, which guarantees that each and every individual of the population has an equal
selection opportunity.
• This helps to reduce the possibility of bias.
• Methods of Probability Sampling
• Simple random sample
• Systematic sample
• Stratified sample
• Cluster sample
• Multistage area sample
 Nonprobability Sampling
• When all the individuals of the population are not given an equal opportunity
of becoming a part of the sample, the method is said to be Non-probability
sampling.
• There is no probability attached to the unit of the population and the selection
relies on the subjective judgment of the researcher.
• The methods of non-probability sampling:
• Convenience
• Judgment
• Quota
• Snowball
Non-Probability Methods
 Convenience Sampling
• Convenience samples are nonprobability samples where the element
selection is based on ease of accessibility.
• They are the least reliable but cheapest and easiest to conduct.
• Examples include informal pools of friends and neighbors, people
responding to an advertised invitation, and “on the street” interviews.
Judgment Sampling
• This is based on the intention or the purpose of study.
• Only those elements will be selected from the population which suits the best for
the purpose of our study.
• For Example: If we want to understand the thought process of the people who are
interested in pursuing master’s degree then the selection criteria would be “Are you
interested for Masters in..?” All the people who respond with a “No” will be
excluded from our sample.
POLLING
• Which method of sampling is cheapest ?
• Convenience/Random/judgemental
Quota Sampling
 This type of sampling depends of some pre-set standard.
 It selects the representative sample from the population.
 Proportion of characteristics/ trait in sample should be same as
population.
 Elements are selected until exact proportions of certain types of data is
obtained or sufficient data in different categories is collected.

 For example: If our population has 45% females and 55% males then our
sample should reflect the same percentage of males and females.
 Snowball Sampling
 This technique is used in the situations where the
population is completely unknown and rare.

 Therefore we will take the help from the first

element which we select for the population and ask
him to recommend other elements who will fit the
description of the sample needed.
 So this referral technique goes on, increasing the
size of population like a snowball.
Polling
Q. In which probability sampling there is equal chance to every sample?
•Probability/Non-Probability Sampling
Probability Methods
 Simple random sampling
• Chance sampling or probability sampling
• Each and every item in the population has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of
the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has
the same probability of being selected.
• This procedure gives each item an equal
probability of being selected.
• In case of infinite population, the selection of each
item in a random sample is controlled by the same
probability and that successive selections are
independent of one another.
Systematic sampling
• In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name
on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on.
• Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
• An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
• This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list.
• In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the
list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
 Stratified sampling
• If the population does not constitute a
homogeneous group
• The population is stratified into a number of
nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata and
sample items are selected from each stratum.
• If the items selected from each stratum is based
on simple random sampling the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple
random sampling, is known as stratified random
sampling.
 Cluster sampling and Area sampling
• Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the
groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample.
• Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly.
• All the elements of the cluster are used for sampling.
• Clusters are identified using details such as age, sex, location etc.
• The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to
ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural
potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated.
• The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure
relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the
case of personal interviews.
Cluster sampling
• Cluster sampling can be done in
following ways:
• Single Stage Cluster Sampling: Entire
cluster is selected randomly for
sampling.
• Two Stage Cluster Sampling : Here
First we randomly select clusters and
then from those selected clusters we
randomly select elements for
sampling
Cluster sampling and Area sampling
• Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked
about when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big
one.
• Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of
smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters,
then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all
units in these small areas are included in the sample.
• Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the
population concerned.
• It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer
can do many interviews at each location.
 Multistage Sampling
• Multi-stage sampling: This is a further
development of the idea of cluster sampling.
This technique is meant for big inquiries
extending to a considerably large
geographical area like an entire country.
• Under multi-stage sampling the first stage
may be to select large primary sampling units
such as states, then districts, then towns and
finally certain families within towns.
• If the technique of random-sampling is
applied at all stages, the sampling procedure
is described as multi-stage random sampling.
Polling
Q. Which image represents stratified sampling?
a/b/c
Q. Which image represents two stage clustering sampling?
a/b/c
• Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design
where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of
information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually
adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical
quality control.

• The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking

into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
 Qualities of a probability sample
• Representative - allows for generalization from sample to
population
• Inferential statistical tests
• Sample means can be used to estimate population means
 Sampling Frame
A sample frame is the listing of all population elements from which the sample
will be drawn.
An ideal sampling frame will have the following qualities:
• all units have a logical, numerical identifier
• all units can be found – their contact information, map location or other relevant
information is present
• the frame is organized in a logical, systematic fashion
• the frame has additional information about the units that allow the use of more advanced
sampling frames
• every element of the population of interest is present in the frame
• every element of the population is present only once in the frame
• no elements from outside the population of interest are present in the frame
• the data is 'up-to-date
 Sampling Units

• Group selected for the sample

• Primary Sampling Units (PSU)
• Secondary Sampling Units
• Tertiary Sampling Units
 Error in survey research
• Sampling error
• unavoidable difference between sample and population
• Sampling-related error
• inadequate sampling frame; non-response
• makes it difficult to generalize findings
• Data collection error
• implementation of research instruments
• e.g. poor question wording in surveys
• Data processing error
• faulty management of data, e.g. coding errors
Sampling Error
• Difference between sample and population
• Biased sample does not represent population
• some groups are over-represented; others are under-represented
• Sources of bias
• non-probability sampling, inadequate sample frame, non-response
• Probability sampling reduces sampling error and allows for inferential
statistics
 Random Sampling Error
• The difference between the sample results and the result of a census conducted
using identical procedures
• Statistical fluctuation due to chance variations

Systematic Errors
• Non sampling errors
• Unrepresentative sample results
• Not due to chance
• Due to study design or imperfections in execution
 Sample size
• Whether you are using a probability sampling or non-probability sampling technique to help you
create your sample, you will need to decide how large your sample should be (i.e., your sample size).
• Your sample size becomes an ethical issue for two reasons: (a) over-sized samples and (b) under-
sized samples.
• Over sized samples: A sample is over-sized when there are more units (e.g., people, organisations)
in the sample than are needed to achieve you goals (i.e., to answer your research questions robustly).
• An over-sized sample is considered to be an ethical issue because it potentially exposes an excessive
number of people (or other units) to your research.
• Under-sized samples : A sample is under-sized when you are unable to achieve your goals (i.e., to
answer your research questions robustly) because of insufficient units in your sample.
• The important point is that you fail to answer your research questions not because a potential answer
did not exist, but because your sample size was too small for such an answer to be discovered (or
interpreted).
 Factors affecting sample size
• Time and cost
• after a certain point (n=1000), increasing sample size produces less
noticeable gains in precision
• very large samples are decreasingly cost-efficient (Hazelrigg, 2004)
• Non-response
• response rate = % of sample who agree to participate (or % who provide
usable data)
• responders and non-responders may differ on a crucial variable
Heterogeneity of the population
the more varied the population is, the larger the sample will have to be

Kind of analysis to be carried out

some techniques require large sample (e.g. contingency table; inferential statistics)
Summary
• Probability Sampling can be more expensive and time consuming
compared to Non-Probability Sampling.
• While probability sampling is based on the principle of randomization
where every entity gets a fair chance to be a part of the sample,
• Non-probability sampling relies on the assumption that the
characteristics are evenly distributed within the population, which
make the sampler believe that any sample so selected would
represent the whole population and the results drawn would be
accurate.
References
• https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sampling.asp
• https://www.statisticssolutions.com/sample-size-calculation-and-sam
ple-size-justification/sampling/
• https://towardsdatascience.com/sampling-techniques-a4e34111d808
THANK YOU