CHAPTER 12

METHODS OF DATA
COLLECTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the purposes of data collection

Discuss the dimensions of data collection
Enumerate the sources of primary and secondary data
Discuss the observation method of data collection
Describe the self-report methods of data collection
Explain the concept of projective techniques
Discuss the existing records as a method of data collection
 CHAPTER OUTLINE
Purposes of data
collection
Objective of Pilot
Study

Projective Dimensions of
techniques data collection

Interview method Sources of

((structured and primary and
unstructured) secondary data

Observation
Questionnaire and
method (structured
schedule
and unstructured)
 CHAPTER OUTLINE

Vignette

Thurstone
Scales Or Focus Group
Differential Discussion
Scale

Existing
Likert Scale
records

Development Of
Rating Scale
Research Tools
 Data is a fact which is an observable and measurable
phenomenon at different level of measurement
(qualitative or quantitative). Data collection is the process
of gathering and measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables
one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses
and evaluate outcomes. Important questions to be asked
while data collection are what, how, who, where and
when data will be collected.
AIMS OF DATA COLLECTION

IDENTIFY VARIABLES/FACTS

MEASURE VARIABLE/
PHENOMENA

DESCRIBE BEHAVIOUR

OBTAIN EMPIRICAL
EVIDENCE (OBJECTIVE,
RELIABLE, VALID)
DIMENSIONS OF DATA COLLECTION

STRUCTURED V/S
UN-STRUCTURED

DIMENSIONS
OBJECTIVITY V/S OF DATA QUANTITATIVE
SUBJECTIVITY COLLECTION V/S QUALITATIVE

RESEARCHER
OBTRUSIVENESS V/S
UNOBTRUSIVENESS
1. Structure versus un-structured:- structured plan indicates what
information is to be gathered and how to gather it? Structured data is
most often categorized as quantitative data. In structured data collection
process, all the following questions need to be answered before
commencing the data collection.
What data to collect?
From whom data will be collected?
Who will collect the data?
From where the data will be collected?
When the data is to be collected?
2. Quantitative versus qualitative:-data collected about a numeric
variable will always be quantitative and data collected about a
categorical variable will always be qualitative. Therefore, you can
identify the type of data prior to collection, based on whether the
variable is numeric or categorical. Quantitative data can be analyzed
statistically, for example annual income of the subjects; whereas
qualitative data is narrated and described in categories such as
occupation, religion, gender etc.
3. Researcher obtrusiveness versus unobtrusiveness:-in obtrusive
data collection, the subjects are aware of the fact that they are being
studied, which can influence their response or behavior; for example
questionnaires or interview methods. Whereas, in unobtrusive data
collection, subjects are not aware of the fact that they are being studied
and therefore research does not affect their response or behavior; for
example content analysis and secondary analysis of data.
4. Objectivity versus Subjectivity: - It refers to the degree to which
two independent researchers can arrive at similar scores or make similar
observations regarding the concepts. Subjective data are the information
from the researcher’s point of view including feelings, perceptions and
concerns whereas objective data are observable and measurable data
obtained through the observation, laboratory and diagnostic testing etc.
 SOURCES OF DATA

Primary data
Collected fresh and for the first
time, and thus considered as
original data.

Secondary data
Already been collected by
someone else.
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
SOURCES OF PRIMARY DATA SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA
I. Observation method 1) Existing Records
 Structured 2) Publications such as textbooks, magazine
 Unstructured
 Participant articles, book reviews, commentaries,
 Non-participant
encyclopedias, almanacs.
I. Self-report
 Interview method 3) Reference of text books and other reference
 Questionnaires books
 Interview Schedules
4) Analysis of newspaper articles.
I. Other methods
 Warranty cards
 Biophysical Measures
 Projective technique
 Focus group discussion
 Oral histories
 Critical incidence report
 Diaries, Vignettes and Q-Short
 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

Collecting Observation
Other methods
Primary Data method

Self-report
 OBSERVATION METHOD

MEANING OF OBSERVATION
Literally, observation is a process of ‘seeing’ the things or events with
naked eye with or without the use of any device to unravel the
complexity of any phenomena to satisfy the demands of an empirical
question.
Observation studies as those that “involve the systematic recording of
observable phenomena or behavior
r in a natural setting”
Gorman and Clayton ( 2005)
 Broad questions in observation

Broad questions in observation

What should be observed?

How should observation be recorded?

What procedures should be used to try to assure the accuracy of observation?

What relationship should exist between the observer and the observed, and how can such
relationship be established?
 TYPES OF OBSERVATION
(i) Structured or controlled observation
(ii) Unstructured observation (Participant observation)
 STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Structured observation (also known as systemic observation) is a
method in which researchers gather data without direct involvement
with the participants and the data collection technique is structured in a
well-defined and procedural manner. The observer observes the
behavior according to pre-arranged schedule. i.e.
Whom to observe?
What to observe?
 How and where to observe
How long to observe for recording the details of verbatim.
Data thus collected will be statistically analyzed and interpreted.
 Methods of Recording Observation
1. Checklists: Checklist enables the observer to systematically record the presence
of a pre-specified behavior or condition. In checklist, the behavior to be performed
by the subject is defined explicitly and operationally to facilitate a quick and
accurate categorization of behavior.
2. Rating Scales: The scales are used in observational studies to assess the quality
of some experience or activity. These scales are found in one or a combination of
three basic forms:

Graphic Numerical
Rating Rating
Scale Scale

Forced-Choice
Rating Scale
 Shortcomings of Rating Scales

Halo Effect

Error of Leniency or severity

Error of Central Tendency

Logical Rating Error

Halo Effect (characteristics effect): It refers to the tendency on the
part of the observer to rate the person being observed (subjects) on
several qualities according to the general impression (or general
mental attitude) he has about him. For example, if a person appears to
be sociable, he may be rated as intelligent by the researcher.
Error of Leniency or severity : It is the tendency on the part of an
observer to overestimate (leniency) or underestimate (severity) the
desirable qualities of the subjects under study when he likes (or
dislikes) him for certain reasons.
Error of Central Tendency: It takes place when the observer is
unable to assign extreme ratings and thus, tends to provide moderate
ratings to the observed actions.
Logical Rating Error: It refers to the tendency on the part of the
observer to assign ratings to the observed for qualities which appear
logically related in his own mind (which may not be true otherwise).
For example a teacher underrates a notorious student of the class.
 Sampling in Structured Observation

TIME SAMPLING

• It is a method of collecting data or information in which researcher observes the research

participants for a specific amount of time and record whether or not a particular behavior or
activity took place.

EVENT SAMPLING

• It is also known as frequency counts, involves observation of targeted behaviours or

specific events. Event sampling is used to determine how often a specified event or behavior
occurs. An important advantage of event sampling is that it helps to preserve the integrity or
wholeness of the event being studied. The method also allows for the study of both frequently
and infrequently occurring events
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION

In this technique observer simply makes

notes on the behavior being observed
without the use of a pre-determined guide.
For example, examining the experiences of
elderly people admitted to geriatric care
home. In this situation, the researcher will
take numerous field notes and may use tape
or video recording to understand their
patient’s experiences. Primary aim of the
unstructured observation is to observe and
record behavior in holistic way and
develop in-depth understanding. Participant
observation is one of the common
techniques used by the researchers to
collect unstructured data.
 Participant Observation
“It is a process of learning through exposure and/ or involvement in the
day-to-day or routine activities of the participants in the researcher
setting." Schensul(1999)

Open,
nonjudgmental
Holistic.
attitude of
researcher.
CHARACTERISTI
CS OF
PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
Focus on learning
and understanding Naturalistic setting.
of behavior.

Extensive
involvement of
observer.
Goals of Participant Observation
• To develop a holistic understanding of
the phenomena under study.
• To understand how things are
organized and prioritized, how people
interrelate to each other and what are
the cultural parameters.
 Position of the Observer

Complete
observer
Observer as
participant

Participant as
observer

Complete
participant
1. Complete participant
Researcher becomes a member of the group being studied and conceals
his/her identity as researcher from the group to avoid disrupting normal
activity. The disadvantages of this are that, the researcher may lack
objectivity, the group members may feel distrustful of the researcher
when the research role is revealed and is ethically incorrect. For
example, researchers adopt the role of a student to study the academic
behavior of the students.
2. Participant as observer
The researcher becomes a participant of the group being studied and the
group is aware of the researcher’s presence. Here, the researcher is a
participant in the group who is observing others and who is interested
more in observing, than in participating.
3. Observer as participant
In this position the researcher is an observer who is not a member of
the group and who is interested in participating as a means for
conducting better observation and hence, generating more complete
understanding of the group's activities. For example, researcher
participates in students’ activities to experience and understand their
behavior.
4. Complete observer
In which the researcher is completely hidden from view while observing
and participants being studied remain unaware of being observed.
Observation is completely unobtrusive and unknown to participants.
 Three types of processes of observation

Descriptive observation

• Observes anything and everything, assuming that he/she knows nothing; the disadvantage of this type is that
it can lead to the collection of minutiae that may or may not be relevant to the study.

Focused observation

• The researcher will analyze material that is relevant to what the researchers are studying. For example, the
facial expressions a participant makes when trying to perform a specific task.

Selective observation

• Researcher focuses on different types of activities to help delineate the differences in those activities. In other
words, here researcher pays attention to events that match a prior conclusion and ignore other events or activities.
 Recording Participants’ Observation
Recording participants observation
Field notes
Descriptive field notes

Reflective field notes

Photographic Observation
a. Field notes:- Field notes are the primary way of capturing the data that is
collected from participant observations. The feelings, thoughts, suppositions of
the researcher may be noted separately. According to Bogdan and Biklen
(1982), field notes usually consist of two broad kinds of
writing: descriptive and reflective.
Descriptive field notes:- These notes provide detailed and accurate
descriptions of what the observer sees, hears and experiences. Detailed,
concrete and vividly specific words should be used instead of abstract,
superficial, summary or evaluative language.
Reflective field notes:- These notes build on the descriptive field notes to
reflect personal account of what researcher interprets or perceives. These
notes go beyond the descriptions presented above, to include observer
speculations, feelings, problems, ideas, hunches, impressions, prejudices and
analyses.
b. Photographic Observation:- Use photographs to remember
activities, take photographs of activities and provide a written
description of the activity that tells the story of what is happening in the
activity, photo by photo.
 QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions

for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. It is also
known as a paper and pencil instrument where the research subjects are
asked to complete. Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick and
efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large
sample of people. Questionnaire includes techniques that do not require
interaction between the investigator and respondent.
PURPOSES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
To elicit information
from subjects to
supplement findings.

To measure
behavior, attitudes,
To explore a new
preferences, opinions
topic
and, intentions of the
subjects.
 Steps Involved In the Development of a Questionnaire
Decide the
Define the target
information
required
respondents

Choose the method(s)

Decide on
of reaching target
respondents question content

Put questions into

Develop the
a meaningful order
question wording and format

Check the length Pre-test the

of the
questionnaire questionnaire
 Types of Questionnaire

Open ended
Closed ended Partially closed
Questionnaire
Questionnaire ended questions

TYPES OF
QUESTION
NAIRE
Closed ended Questionnaire
It is defined as question that ask respondents to choose from a distinct
set of pre-defined responses, such as “yes/no” or among a set of
multiple choice questions. Closed ended questions structure the answer
by only allowing responses which fit into pre-decided categories.
Closed questions can provide nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scale
data. Various types of closed-ended questions are:
1. Dichotomous questions
2. Multi choice questions
TYPES OF MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Visual Analogue Likert

Scales
Scale
MULTIPLE
CHOICE
Force- QUESTIONS Rating
Choice Scale

Rank
Order
Checklist
Open Ended Questionnaire
These types of questions allow the subjects to respond to the question in their own
words. Open-ended questions helps to collect qualitative data where respondent must
“Create” their response. For example, why did you choose nursing as a profession?
Adequate space must be provided to allow the re-expression of options. Open-ended
questions prompt a conversation because they can't be answered with one-word answers.
Partially Closed Ended Questions
• Though answer choices are provided, but subjects have the option of creating their own
response.
• For example;- for what reasons did you retire before the age of 58?
• (i) Health reasons
• (ii) Desire for more free time
• (iii) Was assured of more than adequate income
• (iv) Please list as many other reasons as you can think of.
_________________________
 Question wording in questionnaire

Clarity

Avoid double negative

Avoid double-barreled

Avoid leading question

Avoid context effect

Avoid authority question

Avoid emotionally loaded
words
 Question Sequence in Questionnaire
Start questionnaire with broad general interest questions that are easy for the
respondent to answer. These questions serve to warm up the respondent and get
them involved in the research.
The most difficult questions should be placed in the middle i.e. those that take
time to think about and those that are of less general interest.
At the end, again place general questions that are easier to answer and of broad
interest and application. Typically, these last questions include demographic and
other classification questions.
Items should be organized into units. There should be progression from one
type of item to another and one group to another.
Group similar questions together. For example: Knowledge about AIDS, mode
of transmission, attitude etc.
Ask sensitive information at the end of questionnaire. For example, questions
about sexual activity.
 Questionnaire format

Question
Length
variety

Physical Closing
appearance questions

Question
flow
Administration of Questionnaire

1. Self-administered (Group
administered):- This type of
questionnaire can be distributed
in a number of ways. The most
convenient procedure is to
administer questionnaire to a
group of respondents who
complete the instrument at the
2. Mailingsame
distribution:-
time. Here
questionnaires are mailed to
respondent’s home or work
address. Mailing questionnaires
are commonly used when the
researcher wants to reach a large
sample in a relatively short time.
The respondent then completes
the questionnaire and mails back
to the researcher.
 3. Computer administration:-
Administration of questionnaire using
the computer is becoming more
common nowadays. It has many
advantages. It can be easily
programmed, designed and be
individualized.

4. Personal presentation of
questionnaire:- Personal presentation
of questionnaire to individual
respondents is another alternative.
Personal contact with respondents has
been found to have a positive effect on
the rate of the questionnaire returned
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

An interview schedule is a list

containing a set of structured questions
that have been prepared, to serve as a
guide for interviewers, researchers and
investigators in collecting information or
data about a specific topic or issue. The
schedule will be used by the interviewer,
who will fill in the questions with the
answers received during the actual
interview. In other words ‘schedule’ is
the name given to a list of questions to
which responses are obtained from the
respondent by the investigator in a face-
to-face contact.
 Types of Interview Schedules
In-depth interview
schedule:- This is used for
open-ended interviews, which
are aimed at obtaining
Structured interviewin-
depth information.
schedule (oral The
questions are open-ended,
Questionnaire) :- This type with
of
prompts provided
interview schedule for the
is often
interviewer
compared to format
with the ask for used
clarification orbecause
in questionnaires further of
information, if necessary.
their similarities. The
difference lies in the usage;
obviously, the interview
schedule is used by the
interviewer during a face-to-
face interaction, while the
questionnaire is simply filled
out by the respondent.
Interview schedule contains
the questions that will be
INTERVIEW METHOD

Interviews are used to collect data from a

small group of subjects on a broad range
of topics. An interview is generally
a qualitative research technique which
involves asking open-ended questions to
converse with respondents and collect
elicit data about a subject. Interviewing is
one type of questioning technique in
which the researcher has an ability to
control the level of questioning.
Interviews offer the researchers with a
platform to prompt their participants and
obtain inputs in the desired detail.
Importance of Interview
It is particularly appropriate
when dealing with young
children, illiterates, those with
language difficulty and those
An interviewer can acquire with limited intelligence.
information that would not be It permits the investigator to
conveyed in any other way follow-up and take advantage
such as incidental comments, of small clues in complex
facial or bodily expressions, material where the
tone of voice, gestures, development is likely to
reactions, feelings, attitudes proceed in any direction.
etc.

It is appropriate especially
when dealing with abnormal It facilitates cross-questioning.
persons.

People are usually more willing

and less hesitant to talk than to It is superior to many of the tools
write, especially on delicate, because of its flexibility.
intimate and confidential topics.
 Types of Interview

Structured Interviews

Semi-Structured Interviews

Unstructured Interviews or
in-depth interview
1. Structured Interviews
It is a type of interview in which the interviewer asks a particular set of
predetermined questions and these questions are planned and created in
advance, which means that all respondents are asked the same questions
in the same order. It is also known as a standardized interview and is
significantly quantitative in its approach.
2. Semi-Structured Interviews
Here, the interviewer does not strictly follow a formalized list of
questions. They will ask more open-ended questions, allowing for a
discussion with the interviewee rather than a straightforward question
and answer format. Semi-structured interviews offer a considerable
amount of flexibility to the researcher to explore the respondents along
with maintaining basic interview structure.
3. Unstructured Interviews or in-depth interview
It is an interview in which there is no specific set of predetermined
questions, although the interviewers usually have certain topics in mind
that they wish to cover during the interview. Unstructured
interviews flow like an everyday conversation and tend to be more
informal and open-ended. These interviews have the least number of
questions as they lean more towards a normal conversation but with an
underlying subject. The main objective of most researchers using
unstructured interviews is to build a bond with the respondents due to
which there are high chances that the respondents will be 100% truthful
with their answers.
METHODS OF RESEARCH INTERVIEWS

METHODS OF RESEARCH INTERVIEWS

Personal Telephonic Email or Web

Interviews Interviews Page Interviews
A. Personal Interviews
It is one of the most commonly used types of interviews, where the
questions are asked personally directly to the respondent. A face to face
contact is made with the informants where interviewer asks questions to
them and collects the desired information. A researcher can design
his/her interview in such a way that they take notes of the comments or
points of view that stands out from the interviewee.
B. Telephonic Interviews
It is a data collection method where the interviewer communicates with
the respondent on the telephone in accordance with the prepared
questionnaire. Telephone interview is short and focused on a collection
of concentrated information.
C. Email or Web Page Interviews
Online research is gaining more and more popularity because people are
migrating to a more virtual world and it is best for each researcher to
adapt to this change. The increase in people with Internet access has
made it popular that interviews via email or web page stand out among
the types of interviews mostly used today. More and more people are
using internet, hence they are in a position to participate in an online
interview.
 Elements of an Interview
Assessing the setting

• How do we “get in” This varies with the group, one is attempting to study.

Understanding the language and culture of the respondents

• In order to avoid misinterpretation and bias and to avoid misunderstanding

Deciding on how to present oneself

• The decision of how to present oneself is very important because it leaves a profound impression on the respondents and has a great
influence on the success or failure of the study

Locating an informant

• The researcher must find the insider, a member of a group studied, willing to be an informant and to act as a guide to and translator
of a cultural moves and values and this information will be helpful for the study and saves time

Establishing rapport

• Close rapport with respondent opens doors to more informed research but it may also create problems as the researcher may
become a spokes person for the group studied loosing his or her distance and objectivity

Collecting empirical materials

• Regardless of the circumstances one ought to take notes regularly and promptly write everything and analyze ones notes frequently
The instrument of an Interview

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
An interview schedule is a questionnaire that is read to the
respondent

INTERVIEW GUIDE
It allows the interviewer freedom to pursue relevant topics in
depth, usually by deciding on the spot how to word a question
in the specific context of an interview, rather than reading
from a script as in the case of interview schedule.
 PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
Projective techniques are based on the phenomena of projection. Projective
techniques are the indirect and unstructured methods of data collection which uses
projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions
which cannot be secure through direct questioning, as the respondent resists
revealing that. This technique is sensitive to convert an unconscious aspect of
behavior and encourages a wide variety of subject responses.

DEFINITION
“A projective technique is interpretations of situations and events, by reading into
them our own experience and feelings.”
Drever (1964)
 Characteristics of Projective Techniques
Purpose of the test is not
disclosed

Molar approach Freedom to respond

Multidimensionality of No right or no wrong

responses answers

Evoke responses from Ambiguous or vague test

unconscious materials
Purpose of the test is not disclosed: The purpose of the test is closed
to the subject; otherwise he becomes test conscious and may hide his
real feelings.
 Freedom to respond: Full freedom is provided by the projective
tests to the subject, to respond to the test stimuli.
No right or no wrong answers: In the projective techniques the
responses of the subject are evaluated qualitatively but not scored as
right answer or wrong answer.
Ambiguous or vague test materials: every subject can interpret test
stimuli in his own way. In this sense, the projective techniques often
use ambiguous test materials to which the subject must respond freely,
often in descriptive form. Because the stimuli are ambiguous the
subjects will project their own need, feelings and conflicts into the test
situations.
Evoke responses from unconscious: Projective techniques are based
on the implicit assumptions that the test stimuli evoke responses from
unconscious mind of the subject. The subjects project their inner
feelings and desires in the test situation.
Multidimensionality of responses: It is possible for the subject to
make a great variety of responses to the test because of the
unstructured stimuli of the test. The subject can respond to various
physical, intellectual, social and emotional dimensions.
Molar approach: It means the projective test attempts to study the
totality of behaviour. They emphasize the approach to understand the
personality of the individual but they do not explore the behaviour of
the individual
 Reliability and Validity of Projective Technique

• Psychometricians claim that the test is not highly

reliable because different researchers will interpret
in different ways with the same set of responses.
Reliability of the test
Thus the interpretation is dependent on the personal
opinions of the resrarchers so that the test may not
be highly reliable.

• According to the clinical psychologists the validity

Validity of the test of test ranges from 0.5 to 0.8, i.e., very high but
according to psychometricians validity is very low
 IMPORTANT PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
The Rorschach Ink-blot
test.

TAT or Thematic
Mud play, Drawing tests
Apperception Test.

Doll play, Story telling CAT or Children

tests Apperception Test

Sentence Completion Test Word Association Test.

A. The Rorschach Ink-blot test
Rorschach Material of the test consists of ten cards, which have ink-
blots. Five of them are in black and white and five are multi-colored.
The ink-blots are completely unstructured; the shapes of blots do not
have any specific meaning.
B. Thematic Apperception Test
This test consists of perception of certain pictures in a thematic manner.
This test consists of 29 pictures which portray human beings in a variety
of actual life situations and one blank card. These pictures are vague and
indefinite. Each picture is such that it can elicit a variety of responses.
For every person, psychologist have to administer 19 cards out of 29
cards and one blank card.
C. Word Association Test
In this test, there are a number of selected words. From these words, the
examiner will present a series of words, one at a time, to a subject and ask
him to respond as quickly as possible with the first word that comes to his
mind and the tone of feelings. His responses may reveal something about
what is in his mind. The examiner then records the reply to each word
spoken by him, the reaction time and any unusual speech or behavior
manifestations accompany a given response.
D. Sentence Completion Test
This test consists of a list of incomplete sentences, generally open at the
end and require completion by the subject. Subject is asked to go through
the list and answer as quickly as possible without giving a second thought
to his answers. These Sentence Completion Tests are considered as
superior to word association tests because the subject may respond with
more than one word. It is also possible to have greater flexibility and
variety of response and more area of personality.
E. Doll Play or Play Techniques
In this technique, subjects are asked to act out a situation in which they have
been assigned various roles. The researcher may observe such traits as
hostility, dominance, sympathy, prejudice or the absence of such traits. These
techniques have been used for knowing the attitude of younger ones, through
manipulation of dolls. Dolls representing different racial groups are usually
given to children who are allowed to play with them freely. The manner in
which children organize dolls would indicate their attitudes towards the class
of persons represented by dolls. This is known as a doll play test and is used
frequently in studies pertaining to sociology.
F. Story completion tests
Hear the researcher tells some incomplete stories and ask the informants to
complete them.
G. Drawing test
In these techniques, the subjects are asked to draw some pictures and the
researcher analyzes the drawing.
 Evaluation of Projective Measures

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGE
 These tests are less susceptible to faking than  It is difficult to score projective techniques
self-report measures. objectively.

 It is often easier to make rapport and gain  High degree of inference is required and the
people’s interest with a projective technique quality of data depends on sensitivity and
than a questionnaire or scale. interpretive skills of the investigator.

 It is particularly useful with children.  The interpretation of responses by the

researcher is almost as projective as the
 Data collection is an important step and the data participant’s reaction to the original stimuli.
should be accurate, reliable and thorough.
 Q SORT

Q-sort is the systematic study of participant

viewpoints. It is used to investigate
participant’s viewpoint that represent different
opinion on an issue, by having participants
rank and sort a series of statements. It is useful
to sort out people into groups based on their
similarities and differences in viewpoint on a
particular subject. An important characteristic
of Q-Sort is that it correlates participants
instead of tests. These subject rankings (or
viewpoints) are then subject to factor analysis.
Respondents in Q sort are known as p-set.
Brown, in the year 1993 stated that Q Sort
methodology provides a foundation for the
systematic study of subjectivity, a person’s
viewpoint, opinion, beliefs and attitude.
 Steps in Q Sort

Definition of the Analysis and

concourse Selection of the P set interpretation
1. Definition of the concourse
Concourse refers to “the flow of communicability surrounding any topic” in “the ordinary
conversation, commentary and discourse of everyday life. In-depth interview, participant
observation and literature are the important ways of making concourse. Further statements are
edited and randomly assigned a number which is printed on separate sheet called Q-deck.
2. Development of the Q sample
A subset of statements is drawn from the concourse, to be presented to the participants. This is
called the Q set or Q sample and often consists of 40 to 50 statements.
3. Selection of the P set
This P set usually is smaller than the Q set. The aim is to have four or five persons defining each
anticipated viewpoint, which are often two to four.
4. Q sorting
The score sheet is a continuum ranging from “most disagree” on the one end to “most agree”.
The respondent is instructed to rank the statements according to their point of view regarding the
issue.
5. Analysis and interpretation
 Process of Q Sort

A Q-set, or a Q-sort deck, is composed

by cards and participants have to read
them before sorting. Most of the time,
only a fixed number of cards can be
stored in a pile; for instance, in the box
labeled 'Most Characteristic' (See
picture) only three cards can be stored.
This means that participants need to
choose carefully those three cards they
completely agree with. When large Q-
set are employed, this sorting is
preceded by an initial sorting where
participants are asked to simply read
the cards and store them into a small
set of piles without restrictions (usually
Agree, Neutral and disagree), in order
to become familiar with the content of
each card.
 VIGNETTES

A vignette presents a hypothetical situation, to

which research participants respond thereby revealing
their perceptions, attitude, opinion and impressions of
events. Vignettes are stories generated from a range of
sources including previous research findings, literature
review, personal experiences etc.
 TECHNIQUES OF VIGNETTES

1. Written:- Narratives are one of the more common vignette

techniques. Written narratives can be included in-
Postal questionnaires
 Self-administered questionnaires
Face-to-face interviews
2. Audiotape, videotape and computers : Vignettes can also be
presented on audiotape, videotape and computers
 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

A focus group discussion (FGD) is a way to gather data from the people of similar backgrounds or experiences
on a specific topic of interest. The group of participants is guided by a moderator (or group facilitator) who
introduces topics for discussion and helps the group to participate in a lively and natural discussion among
themselves. FGD allows participants to agree or disagree with each other so that it provides an insight into how a
group thinks about an issue, about the range of opinion and ideas.
 Phenomenon Amenable to Focus Group Discussion

Investigate complex behavior

Discover how different

To deepen understanding groups think and feel about a
and explain statistical data. topic and why they hold
certain opinions.

To add a human dimension

Identify changes in behavior.
to impersonal data.

Inform decision-making,
Validate the results from
strategic planning and
surveys.
resource allocation
 Steps in Focus Group Discussion

A. Developing objectives:- FGD sessions need to be prepared carefully

through identifying the main objective(s) of the meeting.
B. Developing key questions:- usually there are three types of
questions framed for FGD i.e.
Engagement questions:- In the beginning, general questions are
asked to start the discussion with group members.
Exploratory questions:- these questions are used to explore the
phenomena under study.
Exit questions: at the end, some questions are used to summarize the
session.
C. Developing FGD format: The success of any focus group
discussion is based on its carefully designed format.
4. Recording the Session:- most of the focus group discussions are being
recorded on a recording sheet. However, it is advisable to have audio or video
recording of discussion.
5. Inviting Focus Group Participants:- The next step is to identify and invite
suitable discussion participants; the ideal number is between six and eight.
6. Conducting Focus Group Discussion:- The crucial element of FGD is the
facilitation. Some important points to bear in mind in facilitating FGDs are to -
Ensure even participation.
 Careful wording of the key questions.
Maintaining a neutral attitude and appearance.
Summarizing the session to reflect the opinions evenly and fairly.
7. Analyze the Transcripts:- A detailed report should be prepared after the
session is finished. Any observations during the session should be noted and
included in the report.
 COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e.; it refers to the
data which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished.
Types Of Secondary Data

Published data Unpublished data

 Various publications of government.  Diaries, letters.
 Various nursing journals.  Unpublished biographies.
 Books, magazines and newspapers.  Autobiographies.
 Reports and publications of various associations.  Unpublished research project.
 Reports prepared by research scholars of  Unpublished reports.
universities and thesis.
 Public records and statistics, historical
documents and other source of published
information.
 Reports prepared by research scholars of universities
and thesis.
 Public records and statistics, historical documents and
other source of published information.
Characteristics of Secondary Data

Adequacy Reliability
of data of data

Suitability of data
1. Reliability of data: The reliability of data can be tested by finding out such things
about the said data.
Who collected the data?
What were the sources of data?
Where the data was collected?
Were proper methods used to collect the data?
At what time data was collected?
Was there any bias?
What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved?
2. Suitability of data: The data found suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be
found suitable for another enquiry. Hence if the available data are found to be
unsuitable they should not be used by the researcher. In this context the researcher must
very carefully scrutinize the definition of various terms and units of collection used at
the time of collecting data from the primary sources originally.
3. Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for
the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered inadequate; if they are
related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present
EXISTING RECORDS

Existing records are the important

sources of data in many researches.
When time and resources are the
factor, existing records are often
considered as most efficient and
effective strategy of research data.
Existing records may include
information related to participant
characteristics, vital statistics,
income and poverty, health status,
academics, program reports etc.
 DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH TOOLS

CONCEPTUALIZATION AND ITEM GENERATION

Identify the PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF TOOL

concept to be ADMINISTRATION TO THE DEVELOPMENTAL
measured Internal SAMPLE
Determine the &Externl
format of the Review Final draft of the DATA ANALYSIS
measurement Pre-testing of scale need to be
Develop the scale administered to Item Analysis
Reliability and the Factor Analysis
scale items scoring of the
Determine items readability of the developmental scale and
feature tool. sample
developing user
Revision norms
 SCALES AS MEASUREMENT TOOLS
Meaning of Scaling
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various
degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This can be done in two
ways-

Making a judgment about some characteristic of

individuals and then placing these directly on a scale
that has been defined in terms of those characteristic
 DEFINITION OF A SCALE
Scaling is applied to the procedures for attempting to determine
quantitative measures of subjective abstract concepts.
Scale is a set of symbols or numerals constructed so that symbols or
numerals can be assigned by rule to characteristics of individuals to
whom the scale is applied
Scale is a continuum extending from the highest point (in terms of a
characteristic, e.g. favourableness, agreement etc.) and the lowest
point, i.e., the lowest degree in terms of the characteristic, there being
several intermediate points between these two poles.
 TYPES OF SCALE

Rating scale

Semantic differential
scale & Multi Arbitrary scale
dimensional scale

Differential scale
Factor scale
(Thurstone type scale)

Cumulative scale
Summated scale (Likert)
(Guttman’s scale)
 1. RATING SCALE
Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of points, which describes
varying degrees of the dimension of an attitude being observed.
Types of Rating Scale
TYPES OF RATING SCALE
NUMERICAL RATING SCALE

FORCED-CHOICE RATING SCALE

GRAPHIC RATING SCALE

THE LIKERT SCALE

1. Numerical Rating Scale
These are used by the researchers to record quantified observations of
behavior of individuals, the activities of an entire group, the change in
the situation etc. These scales are less reliable and provide more
superficial information than category systems. Numerical scales involve
a series of points which depict varying extents of the dimensions being
observed.
2. Forced-Choice Rating Scale
The observer is required to choose only one of the two statements to
describe him. Thus, he may be forced to indicate, whether the individual
has more of one quality than another of the given pair.
3. Graphic Rating Scale
The graphic rating scale is in the form of a straight line representing a
thermometer and presented either horizontally or vertically. The
observer is required to make a judgment which frequently reflects either
positively or negatively on the observed behaviour.
4. The Likert Scale
A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires,
and is the most widely used scale in survey research, such that the term
is often used interchangeably with rating scale even though the two are
not synonymous. When responding to a Likert questionnaire item,
respondents specify their level of agreement to a statement.
2. THURSTONE SCALES OR DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

The name L. L. Thurstone is associated

with differential scales, which have been
developed using consensus scale
approach. Under such approach the
selection of items is made by a panel of
judges who evaluate those items, in
terms of whether they are relevant to the
topic area and unambiguous in
implication. Thurstone scale has a
number of “agree” or “disagree”
statements. It is a unidimensional scale
to measure attitudes towards people.
 Types of Thurstone Scale

Method of equal-appearing intervals.

• It’s called “Equal appearing intervals” because items for test (see Step 6 below), are equally spaced apart.

Method of paired comparisons:

• Requires twice the judgments than the equal-appearing intervals method and can quickly become very
consuming

Method of successive intervals:

• This method is more challenging to implement than equal-appearing intervals.

3. CUMULATIVE /GUTTMAN SCALING

Cumulative scales or Louis Guttman’s

scalogram analysis consists of series of
statements through which a respondent
expresses his agreement or disagreement.
The special feature of this type of scale is
that statement in it forms a cumulative
series. That is combination of responses
required to make a particular score include
the responses to all questions required to
make the next lower score and the response
to one additional question in a stepwise
fashion.
 4. FACTOR SCALE

Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on the basis of

inter correlation of items which indicate that a common factor
accounts for the relationship between items. Factor scales are
particularly useful in uncovering the latent attitude dimension and
concepts of multiple dimensions attributes. Factor analysis generally
uses an input data.
Factor analysis is a technique that is used to reduce a large number of
variables into fewer numbers of factors. This technique extracts
maximum common variance from all variables and put them into a
common score
 4. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

This method was developed by Osgood, Uci, and Tannenbaem in 1959.

Semantic Differential scale is an attempt to measure the semantics or
meaning of words, particularly adjectives, and their referent concepts.
The respondent is asked to choose where his or her position lies, on a
scale between two polar adjectives (for example: "Adequate-
Inadequate", "Good-Evil" or "Valuable-Worthless"). Semantic
differentials can be used to measure opinions, attitudes and values on a
psychometrically controlled scale.
Use of adjective in SD Scale
People have been describing each other since they developed the ability
to speak. Osgood and his colleagues found three recurring attitudes that
people use to evaluate words and phrases.

EVALUATION POTENCY ACTIVITY

Evaluation-refersPotency
to refersActivity
to refers to the
overall positive,
over-all strengthextent
or to which the
negative meaning importance ofconcept
the is associated
attached to the
concept, e.g., strong,
with action or motion,
concepts e.g., good,
weak, superior,
e.g., fast, slow, active,
bad, dirty etc. inferior etc passive etc.
 PROCEDURESOF DEVELOPING SD SCALE
1.Factors of all concepts to be studied are selected. The concepts are
usually chosen by personal judgment, keeping in view the nature of the
problem.
2. Select the scales bearing in mind the criterion of the factor
composition and criterion of scale’s relevance to the concept being
judged.
3. Then a panel of judges are used to rate the various stimuli on the
various selective scales and the response of all judges would then be
combined to determine the composite scaling.
VISUAL ANALOG SCALE

Visual analogue scales (VAS) are

psychometric response scales used to
measure subjective characteristics or
attitudes and have been used in the
past for huge number of disorders.
VAS were first described in 1921 and
referred as a “graphic rating method.
A visual analog scale is a particularly
useful scale for assessing perception
of physical stimuli such as pain, sleep,
quality and shortness of breath.
 It consists of a linear scale,
more frequently 100mm in
length, anchored by two
words or phrases. Because of
its length, the scale allows for
fine numerical discrimination
between respondents. The
linear scale may be either
horizontal or vertical. Here the
respondent is asked to read the
item and then to place an ‘X’
or mark on the line. The mark
indicates the intensity of their
response in relation to the two
words. If documented in paper
form, the scores can then be
simply transferred to a 100-
value scale using a millimeter
tape measure. The division
into hundredths is considered
sufficiently sensitive.
VAS SCALE
 Advantages and disadvantages of VAS scales

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 It is relatively easy for  One drawback encountered
researchers to develop and for with VAS is that patients have
the respondents to use. difficulty finding the point on
 VAS permit statistically the line that best applies to
significant differences in them.
distributions to be readily  VAS can only be used in
determined. written (or digital) format and
 VAS is particularly well suited not for oral interviews.
to measuring continuous A minimum patient ability in
features. Data obtained with terms of visual ability and
VAS can be converted hand-eye coordination is
parametrically to an interval- required in VAS.
scale level.
 CHAPTER FOCUS
Data is a fact which is an observable and measurable phenomenon at different
level of measurement (qualitative or quantitative). Data collection is the process
of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses and evaluate outcomes. Dimensions of data collection include
structure, quantifiability, researcher obtrusiveness and objectivity. Participant
observation is the process enabling researchers to learn about the activities of the
people under study in the natural setting through observing and participating in
those activities. Structured Interviews is a type of interview in which the
interviewer asks a particular set of predetermined question where questions are
planned and created in advance, which means that all respondents are asked the
same questions in the same order. A visual analog scale is a particularly useful
scale for assessing perception of physical stimuli such as pain, sleep, quality and
shortness of breath.