Introduction to Large Scale Path

Loss – Part 2
ArunKumar Jayaprakasam
Scope: Chapter 4 (4.9 onwards)
 Agenda
• Introduction
– Free Scale Path Loss Model
– Log Normal Distribution and Coverage Area
• Outdoor PathLoss Models
• Indoor Pathloss Models
• Outdoor->Indoor
• Noise Figure
• Link Budget Examples
 Propagation of RF waves can be divided into two main study areas

Large Scale Effects

• due to terrain and the density & dimensions of objects
• includes random destructive interference and diffraction
• characterized statistically by median path loss & log normal shadowing
• behavior is slowly time varying
 important for predicting coverage areas and service availability

Small Scale Effects

• considers fading associated with
(i) superposition of many E-field components caused by local reflections
(ii) changes in interference patterns at mobile receiver
• due to environment local to the receiver and mobility
• behavior varies much faster in time
• often characterized statistically as Rayleigh fading
 important in design of modulation format & general transceiver design
3
3.9 Predictable Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models

Most RF propagation models are derived from combined

(i) analytical studies
(ii)experimental methods
(iii)stochastic models

Empirical Approach – measured data is fitted to a curve or an

analytical expression
• uses field measurements
• implicitly accounts for all factors (known and unknown)
• model generally not valid for all frequencies or environments

Classical Models have evolved to predict large scale path loss

• used to estimate receive signal strength as a function of distance
• used along with noise analysis techniques used to predict SNR
for RF mobile systems

4
Median Path Loss Determination
• estimate receive power at distance d from transmitter

N
Ẽ = Ẽd  Lk exp jk 
k 1

Ẽ = total received electrical field (V/m)

Ẽd = electric field of equivalent direct path
N = number of paths between T and R
Lk = relative loss of kth path
k = relative phase shift of kth path
if LOS exists  L0 = 1 and 0 = 0
~2
E
Pr(d) = Ae
120
5
Free Space Path Loss Equation - Absolute

• D- distance in km
• F – frequency in MHz
• Gtx, Grx – Antenna gains in dB
3.9.1 Log Distance Path Loss Model
• average received power decreases logarithmically with distance
• theory & measurements indicate validity for indoors & outdoors

(1) Average Large Scale Path Loss Model

• distance dependent mean path loss - over significant distances

n
Pr ( d )  d 
PL( d )     (3.67)
Pt ( d )  d 0 
 d 
PL(dB) PL(d 0 )  10n log  (3.68)
 d0 

d0 = close in reference distance, often determined emperically

d = transmitter - receiver separation
n = path loss exponent - indicates rate of path loss increase with d0

7
Free Space Reference Distance, d0,
• always in antenna’s far-field - eliminate near field effects for
reference path
• must be specified for different environments

Environment d0
large cellular 1km
microcell 1m-10m

Reference Path Loss, PL(d0) calculated using either

(i) free space path loss (eqn 3.5)
(ii) field measurements at d0

Path Loss Exponent, n

Environment n Environment n
free space 2 In building LOS 1.6-1.8
Urban-cellular 2.7-3.5 Obstructed in Building 4-6
Shadowed Urban Cellular 3-5 Obstructed in Factories 2-3
8
3.9.2 Log Normal Shadowing
• surrounding clutter isn’t considered by log distance model
• averaged received power (eqn 3.68) is inconsistent with measured data
• measured PL(d) at any location is random, with log normal distribution
about PL(d ) (normal distribution of log10(•) )

PL(d) = PL(d )  
(3.69a)
 d 
PL(d) (dB) = PL( d 0 )  10n log   Χ σ
 d0 

Pr(d) (dB)= Pt(d) (dB) - PL(d) (dB) (3.69b)

• antenna gains included in PL(d)

•  = zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB)
•  = standard deviation of 

9
Log Normal Distribution - describes random shadowing effects
• for specific Tx-Rx, measured signal levels have normal distribution
about distance dependent mean (in dB)
• occurs over many measurements with same Tx-Rx & different
clutter standard deviation,  (also measured in dB)
Lognormal Model For Local Shadowing
• typically, dB ranges from 5-12
• let u = median path loss (dB) at distance d from transmitter
 distribution xdB of observed path loss has pdf given by:
1
Pr[xdB = x] = f(xdB) = exp xdB  u / 2 dB
2

2 dB

it follows that Pr(xdB > x) = f ( x
x
dB )dxdB

1
=  exp xdB  u / 2 dB
2

x 2 dB
10
Log Normal Graph: Pr(xdB > x) vs Gain/Loss Relative to Median Path Loss
• shown for dB = 4,6,8, 12
median  50% of samples expected to be > median &
50% expected to be < median
• all curves intersect at median

1
dB = 12 dB
Pr (Gain < Abscissa)

0.5 8 dB
10-1 6 dB
4dB
10-2

10-3 dB loss relative to % time

median path
10-4-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 6dB > 10dB 1%
Gain relative to Median Path Loss(dB) 12dB > 10dB 10%
4dB > 7dB 1%

11
Path Loss Model Parameters for arbitrary location & specified Tx-Rx
• d0 – close in reference distance
•  - clutter standard deviation
• n – path loss exponent

Used for system design & analysis simulations to provide estimated Pr(d) at random
locations

 & n are derived from measurements using linear regression

• minimizes difference between measured & estimated path loss
• minimized in a mean-square sense over many measurements & d’s

12
Q-function is used to determine probability that PR(d)  threshold 

  x2 
 
1  2 
Q(z) =
2 e
z
 
dx 3.70a

where Q(-z) = 1- Q(z) 3.70b

(i) PL(d) is RV with a normal distribution in dB about PL(d )

• as a result, Pr(d) inherits these characteristics

(ii) Pr(d) >  or Pr(d) <  is determined from CDF

   Pr (d ) 
Pr [Pr(d) >  ] = Q 

3.71
  

 Pr (d )   
Pr [Pr(d) <  ] = Q   3.72
  
13
3.9.3 Determination of % Coverage Area
• in a given coverage area, let  = desired receive signal level –
could be determined by receiver sensitivity (or visa versa)
• random shadowing effects cause some locations at d to have
received power, Pr(d) < 

Determine boundary coverage vs % area covered within a boundary,

assuming
• a circular coverage area with radius R from base station
• likelihood of coverage at cell boundary is known (given)
• d = r represents radial distance from transmitter

useful service area (coverage area): U() = % area with Pr(d) > 

1
2 
U() = Pr[ Pr (r )  ]dA
2R
(3.73)
2 R
1
U() =
2R 2 Pr[ P (r )  ]r
0 0
r dr d
14
Left Axis = % area with Pr(r) >  (coverage area-use 3.73)

Right Axis = Pr[Pr(r) > ] (boundary coverage-use 3.68)

std deviation of 
/n = path loss exponent U() % Pr[Pr(r) > ]
1 0.95
0.90
0.95 0.85
0.80
Pr[Pr(r) > ] /n U() 0.90
0.75
0.85 0.70
0.95 2 0.99
0.70 2 0.9 0.80 0.65
0.60 2 0.82 0.75
0.60
0.70
0.55
0.65
0.60 0.50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
/n
15
OUTDOOR PROPAGATION MODELS
3.10 Outdoor Propagation Model
estimating PL(d) requires terrain profile for propagation over
irregular terrain such as
• simple curved earth profile
• highly mountainous
• obstacles: trees, building,
all models predict Pr(d) at given point or small area (sector)
• wide variations in approach, complexity, accuracy
• most based on systematic interpretation of empirical data

- Longely Rice
- Durkins Model
- Okumura Model
- Hata Model
- Wideband PCS Microcell
- PCS Extension to Hata Model
- Walfisch – Bertoni Model

17
3.10.1 Longely Rice Model (ITS irregular terrain model)
• used for point-point systems under different types of terrain
• frequency ranges from 40MHz-100GHz

(i) Median Transmission Loss predicted using path geometry of terrain

profile & refractivity of troposphere
(ii) Signal Strengths within radio horizon predicted using Geometric Optics
Techniques (primarily 2-ray ground reflection)

(iii) Diffraction Loss over isolated obstacles predicted using Fresnel-

Kirchoff knife edge models

(iv) Troposcatter over long distances predicted using Forward Scatter

Theory

(v) Far-Field Diffraction losses in double horizon paths predicted using

Modified Van der Pol-Bremner Method

18
Longely Rice Model: available as a computer program
calculates large scale median transmission loss over irregular terrain for
frequencies between 20MHz-10GHz
input parameters include:
• transmission frequency,
• path length & antenna heights,
• polarization,
• surface refractivity
• earth radius & climate
• ground conductivity & ground dielectric constant
• path specific parameters: antennas’ horizon distance, horizon elevation
angle, trans-horizon distance, terrain irregularity

Prediction Modes for Longely Rice

1. point-point mode: used when detailed terrain profile or path
specific parameters are known
2. area mode prediction: uses estimated path specific parameters
19
3.10.2 Durkins Model: similar to Longly-Rice
• predicts field strength contours over irregular terrain
• adopted by UK joint radio committee
• consists of two parts

(1) ground profile

• reconstructed from topographic data of proposed surface along
radial joining transmitter and receiver
• models LOS & diffraction derived from obstacles & local scatters
• assume all signal received along radial (no multipath)

(2) expected path loss calculated along the radial

• move receiver location to deduce signal strength contour
• pessimistic in narrow valleys
• identifies weak reception areas well

20
2-D Propagation Raster data
Representing propagation
Algorithm for line of sight (LOS)
Multiple diffraction computation
3.10.3 Okumura Model – wholly based on measured data - no analytical explanation
• among the simplest & best for in terms of path loss accuracy in
cluttered mobile environment
• disadvantage: slow response to rapid terrain changes
• common std deviations between predicted & measured path loss 
10dB - 14dB
• widely used for urban areas
• useful for
- frequencies ranging from 150MHz-1920MHz
- frequencies can be extrapolated to 3GHz
- distances from 1km to 100km
- base station antenna heights from 30m-1000m

25
Okumura developed a set of curves in urban areas with quasi-smooth terrain
• effective antenna height:
- base station hte = 200m
- mobile: hre = 3m
• gives median attenuation relative to free space (Amu)
• developed from extensive measurements using vertical omni-
directional antennas at base and mobile
• measurements plotted against frequency

26
Estimating path loss using Okumura Model
1. determine free space loss, Amu(f,d), between points of interest
2. add Amu(f,d) and correction factors to account for terrain

L50(dB)= LF + Amu(f,d) – G(hte) – G(hre) – GAREA (3.80)

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)

LF = free space propagation loss
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment

27
Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of frequencies

antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB per decade or 10dB per decade

G(hte) =
hte 10m < hte < 1000m (3.81a)
20 log
200
hre
G(hre) = 10 log hre  3m (3.81b)
3
G(hre) =
h 3m < hre <10m (3.81b)
20 log re
3
model corrected for
• h = terrain undulation height
• isolated ridge height
• average terrain slope
• mixed land/sea parameter

28
Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space = Amu(f,d) (dB)

100
70 Urban Area
ht = 200m 80
60 hr = 3m 70
60
50
50 40
30

d(km)
40 20
Amu(f,d) (dB)

10
30 5
2
1
20

10

70 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 f (MHz) 29

Correction Factor = GAREA(dB)

35
open area
30
quasi open area
25
suburban area
20
GAREA(dB)

15
10
5
0

100 200 300 500 700 103 2103 3 103

frequency (MHz)

30
3.10.4 Hata Model: empirical model of graphical path loss data from
Okumura
- predicts median path loss for different channels
- valid over UHF/VHF band from 150MHz-1.5GHz
- charts used to characterize factors affecting mobile land propagation
- standard formulas for approximating urban propagation loss
- correction factors for some situations
- compares closely with Okumura model as d > 1km  large mobile
systems

31
Parameter Comment
L50 50th % value (median) propagation path loss (urban)
fc frequency from 150MHz-1.5GHz
hte, hre Base Station and Mobile antenna height
 (hre) correction factor for hre , affected by coverage area
d Tx-Rx separation

L50 (urban)(dB) = A + B log10d (3.82)

A= 69.55 + 26.16 log10(fc) – 13.82 log10(hte) – (hre)

• represents fixed loss – approximately 2.6 power law dependence on fc
• dependence on antenna heights is proportional to h 1.382
re

B= 44.9 - 6.55 log10(hte)

• represents path loss exponent, worst case ≈ 4.5

L50 (urban)(dB) = 69.55 + 26.16log10 fc – 13.82 log10 hte – (hre)

+ (44.9-6.55hte)log10 d
32
Mobile Antenna Height Correction Factor for Hata Model

 (hre) Comment
(1.1log10 fc - 0.7)hre – (1.56log10 fc - 0.8)dB Medium City 3.83
8.29(log10 1.54hre)2 – 1.1 dB Large City (fc  300MHz) 3.84a
3.2(log10 11.75hre)2 – 4.97 dB Large City (fc > 300MHz) 3.84b

Hata Model for Rural and Suburban Regions

• represent reductions in fixed losses for less demanding environments

L50 (dB) Comment

L50 (urban) - 2[log10 (fc/28)]2 – 5.4 Suburban Area 3.85

L50 (urban) - 4.78(log10 fc)2 - 18.33log10 fc - 40.98 Rural Area 3.86

33
Example Tables for Okumura-Hata Model
180
170

Path Loss (dB)

Terrain Legend • hte = 30m
160
• Urban • hre = 1m
150
• Suburban 140
• Open 130 900 MHz
120 700 MHz
110
100
0 4 8 12 16 20
Range (km)
160
155 fc = 700MHz
Path Loss (dB)

150
145 20km
140
135 10km
130
125 5km
120
20 60 100 140 180
hte (m) 34
3.10.6 Walfisch & Bertoni Model

path loss: S = P0Q2P1 (3.89)

2
P0 =    (3.90)
 
 4R 
P0 = free space path loss between isotropic antennas
Q2 = reduction in rooftop signal due to row of buildings that
immediately shadow hill
P1 = based on diffraction  determines signal loss from
roof top to street

S (dB) = L0 + Lrts + Lms (3.91)

L0 = free space loss

Lrts = roof-to-street diffraction & scatter loss
Lms = multi-screen diffraction loss from rows of building

35
Walfisch and Bertoni’s model
3.10.7 Wideband PCS Microcell Model
Feuerstien Measured cellular systems in Bay Area
- 20MHz pulsed transmitter at 1900 MHz
- base station antenna heights 3.7m, 8.5m, 13.3m
- mobile antenna heights 1.7m

• assume flat ground reflection model

• let df = 1st Fresnel zone clearance

1 4
df =

16 h h   h  h
2 2
t r
2
 t
2 2
r   16 (3.92a)

Model for Average Path Loss - LOS channel

• double regression model with regression breakpoint at 1st
Fresnel zone clearance
• fits measured data well
• model assumes omni-directional vertical antennas

37
Average Path Loss – PCS Microcell

10n1 log(d )  p1 for 1  d  d f  (3.92b)

PL(d )  
10n2 log(d / d r )  10n1 log(d f )  p1 for d  d f 

p1 = PL ( d ) = path loss in dB at reference distance d0 = 1m

0
d = T-R separation distance
n1, n2 = path loss exponents relates to antenna heights

e.g. at 1900MHz  p1 = 38.0dB

38
Measured data from San Francisco
INDOOR PROPAGATION MODELS
3.11 Indoor Propagation Model
• smaller Tx-Rx separation distances than outdoors
• higher environmental variability for much small Tx-Rx separation
- conditions vary from: doors open/closed, antenna position,
- variable far field radiation for receiver locations & antenna types
• strongly influenced by building features, layout, materials

• Dominated by same mechanisms as outdoor propagation (reflection,

refraction, scattering)
• Classified as either LOS or OBS
• Surveyed by [Mol91], [Has93]

- Partition Losses – Same Floor

- Partition Losses – Different Floor
- Log-distance path loss model
- Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model
- Attenuation Factor Model

41
Partition Losses – Same Floor
• hard partitions: immovable, part of building
• soft partitions: movable, lower than the ceiling

Partition Losses – Different Floor: dependent on external building

dimensions, structural characteristics & materials

Log-distance path loss model: accurate for many indoor paths

 d 
PL(dB) = PL(d 0 )  10n log    (3.93)
 d0 
• n depends on surroundings and building type
•  = normal random variable in dB having std deviation 
• identical to log normal shadowing mode (3.69)

42
Partition losses
Partition losses
(1) Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model: measurements in multi-floor office building
• uses uniform distribution to generate path loss values between
minimum &maximum range, relative to distance
• 4 breakpoints consider upper and lower bound on path loss
• assumes 30dB attenutation at d0 = 1m
- accurate for f = 900MHz & unity gain anntenae
• provides deterministic limit on range of path loss at given distance

30
50
attenuation (dB)

70
20dB
90
110

1 3 10 20 40 100 meters
45
(2) Attenuation Factor Model (Seidel92b)
• includes effect of building type & variations caused by obstacles
• reduces std deviation for path loss to   4dB
• std deviation for path loss with log distance model  13dB

 d 
PL(d ) (dB )  PL(d 0 ) (dB )  10nSF log   FAF (dB )   PAF (dB ) 3.94
 d0 
nSF = exponent value for same floor measurement – must be accurate
FAF = floor attenuation factor for different floor
PAF = partition attenuation factor for obstruction encountered by
primary ray tracing
primary ray tracing = single ray drawn between Tx & Rx
yields good accuracy with good computational efficiency

PAF(1)
Tx PAF(2)
FAF
Rx
46
 Path Loss Exponent & Standard Deviation for Typical Building

Location n σ (dB) number of points

same floor 2.76 12.9 501
through 1 floor 4.19 5.1 73
through 2 floor 5.04 6.5 30
through 3 floor 5.22 6.7 30

47
(3) Simple Indoor Path Loss Model

n P Q
 r 
Lp (dB) = (dB) + 10 log10     WAF ( p )   FAF (q ) 2.4
 r0  p 1 q 1 7
• r = distance between transmitter & receiver
• r0 = nominal reference distance (typically 1m)
• WAF(p) is wall attenuation factor, for P floors
• FAF(q) is floor attenuation factor, for Q floors
• n  2 for close distances, larger for greater distances

material loss at 900MHz loss at 1700MHz

plaster wall  5dB  11dB
concrete wall  10dB  17dB

• more accurate when P and Q are small

• model neglects angle of incidence & effect of distance on n
48
Measured indoor path loss
OUTDOOR -> INDOOR
3.12 Signal Penetration into Buildings
• no exact models
• signal strength increases with height
• lower levels are affected by ground clutter (attenuation &
penetration)
• higher floors may have LOS channel  stronger incident signal on
walls

RF Penetration affected by
- frequency
- height within building
- antenna pattern in elevation plain

51
penetration loss
• decreases with increased frequency
• loss in front of windows is 6dB greater than without windows
• penetration loss decreases 1.9dB with each floor when < 15th
floor
• increased attenuation at >15 floors – shadowing affects from
taller buildings
• metallic tints result in 3dB to 30dB attenuation
• penetration impacted by angle of incidence

52
 Penetration Loss vs Frequency for two different building

(1) Frequency Attenuation (2) Frequency Attenuation

(MHz) (dB) (MHz) (dB)
441 16.4 900 14.2
896.5 11.6 1800 13.4
1400 7.6 2300 12.8

Ray Tracing & Site Specific Models

• rapid acceleration of computer & visualization capabilities
• SISP – site specific propagation models
• GIS – graphical information systems
- support ray tracing
- augmented with aerial photos & architectural drawings

53
 Problems with models
• All models have limitations: e.g. Longley Rice doesn’t
include ionosphere, so limited applicability at lower
frequencies.
• Some skill is needed in choosing the right model for the
right circumstances.
• Accuracy is limited. Different models can give different
answers.
• May need a statistical interpretation
• Need good input data (e.g. terrain models)
• Any model needs fairly universal acceptance, to avoid legal
arguments. Acceptance may be more important than
accuracy.
• But In spite of the difficulties, propagation models have
come a long way. They are the best guides available.
NOISE FIGURE AND LINK BUDGET
EXAMPLES
 Noise
• “Any unwanted input”
• Limits systems ability to process weak signals
• Sources:
1. Random noise in resistors and transistors
2. Mixer noise
3. Undesired cross-coupling noise
4. Power supply noise
• Dynamic range – capability of detecting weak signals
in presence of large-amplitude signals
 Noise factor
• IEEE Standards: “The noise factor, at a
specified input frequency, is defined as the ratio of
(1) the total noise power per unit bandwidth
available at the output port when noise
temperature of the input termination is standard
(290 K) to (2) that portion of (1) engendered at the
input frequency by the input termination.”

available  output  noise  power

F
available  output  noise  due  to  source
 Noise factor (cont.)

• It is a measure of the degradation of SNR due

SNRi
to the noise added - F 
SNRo
1

• Implies that SNR gets worse as we process the

signal
Na
• Spot noise factor F 1 
kT
• The answer is the bandwidth
 Thermal Noise
• Thermal noise
– Due to thermal agitation of electrons. Present in
all electronics and transmission media.
– kT(W/hz)
• k Boltzmann’s constant = 1.3810-23
• T – temperature in Kelvin (C+273)
– kTB(W)
• B bandwidth
• -174dBm /Hz
 Noise factor (cont.)
• Quantitative measure of receiver
performance wrt noise for a given
bandwidth
• Noise figure NF 10 log( F )
– Typically 8-10 db for modern receivers
• Multistage (cascaded) system (Friis
Formula)
F2  1 F3  1 Fn  1
F F 1    ... 
G1 G1G 2 G1G 2  Gn  1
Simple link budget – 802.11b receiver sensitivity

• Thermal noise: -174 dBm/Hz

• Channel noise (22MHz): 73 dB
• Noise factor: 5 dB
• Noise power (sum of the above): -96 dBm
• Receiver requirements:
– 3 dB interference margin
– 0 dB is the minimum SINR
• Min receiver signal strength: -93 dBm
Simple link budget – mobile phone – downlink example

• Transmission power (base station): 20W (can be as high as 100W)

• Transmission power for voice (not control): 18W
• Number of users: 60
• Transmission power/user: 0.3W, 300mW, 24.8dBm
• Base station antenna gain (3-sectors): 18dBi
• Cable loss at base station: 2dB
• Effective isotropic radiated power: 40dBm (sum of the above)
• Receiver:
• Thermal noise: -174 dBm/Hz
• Mobile station receiver noise figure (noise generated by the receiver, Johnson Noise,
ADC quantization, clock jitter): 7dB
• Receiver noise density: -167 dB/Hz (-174+7)
• Receiver noise: -101.2 dBm (assuming 3.84MHz bandwidth for CDMA)
• Processing gain: 25dB (CDMA is spread, when unspread(demodulated) and filtered,
some of the wide band noise is removed)
• Required signal strength: 7.9dB
• Receiver sensitivity: -101.2 – 25 + 7.9 = -118.3
• Body loss (loss due to your big head): 3dB
• Maximum path loss: 40 – (-118.3) –3 = 155.3
Simple link budget – mobile phone – uplink example
• Transmission power (mobile): 0.1W (21 dBm)
• Antenna gain: 0 dBi
• Body loss: 3 dB
• Effective isotropic radiated power: 18 dBm (sum of the above) (maximum allowabel by
FCC is 33 dBm at 1900MHz and 20dBm at 1700/2100 MHz
• Receiver/base station
• Thermal noise: -174 dBm/Hz
• Mobile station receiver noise figure (noise generated by the receiver, Johnson Noise,
ADC quantization, clock jitter): 5dB
• Receiver noise density: -169 dB/Hz (-174+5)
• Receiver noise: -103.2 dBm (assuming 3.84MHz bandwidth for CDMA)
• Processing gain: 25dB (CDMA is spread, when unspread(demodulated) and filtered,
some of the wide band noise is removed)
• Margin for interference: 3dB (more interference on the uplink than on the downlink)
• Required signal strength: 6.1dB
• Receiver sensitivity: -119.0
• Maximum path loss: 153.3
Thank You
 Acknowledgements

The contents of the slides have been taken

from various sources for explanation purposes
only. No copyright violation intended.
Backup Slides
3.10.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model
• European Co-operative Scientific & Technical (EUROCOST)
formed COST-231
• extend Hatas model to 2GHz

L50 (urban)(dB) = 46.3 + 33.9logfc – 13.82 loghte – (hre) +

(44.9-6.55hte)logd + CM

• (hre) defined in 3.83, 3.84a, 3.84b

• for medium sized cities CM = 0dB

• metropolitan centers CM = 3dB

fc = frequency from 1500MHz - 2 GHz

hte = 30m-200m
hre = 1m-10m
d = 1km-20km

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 Replace FAF with nMF = exponent for multiple floor loss

 d 
PL( d ) ( dB )  PL( d 0 ) ( dB )  10nMF log    PAF ( dB ) 3.95
 d0 

 decreases as average region becomes smaller-more specific

Building Path Loss obeys free space + loss factor () (Dev90b)
• loss factor increases exponentially with d
•  (dB/m) = attenuation constant for channel

 d 
PL( d ) ( dB )  PL( d 0 ) ( dB )  20 log   d  FAF ( dB )   PAF ( dB ) 3.96
 d0 
4-story bldg 2-story bldg
f  f 
850MHz 0.62 850MHz 0.48
1.7GHz 0.57 1.7GHz 0.35
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