Water Supply and Systems

Lecture One
 Quantity of Water…Introduction

Body composition
Body 65% water; blood, 83%; bones, 25%
Water loss: 1% thirst; 5% hallucinations; 15% death
Basic requirements for safe water
Drinking: 2–3 liters/day
Minimum acceptable standard for living (WHO)
20–50 liters/capita/day for cooking and basic hygiene
Introduction…
The per capita freshwater supply in Kenya is estimated at only 535 m 3
Water supply coverage in Kenya stands at an average of 59 percent …..on course to
miss the SDG 6
Access to water-supply services is defined as the availability of at least 20 litres per
person per day from an "improved" source within 1 kilometre of the user's dwelling.
“improved” source is one that is likely to provide "safe" water, such as a household
connection, a borehole, etc.

An improved water supply is defined as:

- Household connection - Public standpipe - Borehole
- Protected dug well - Protected spring - Rainwater collection
 Water Supply Engineering
Planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of water supply systems.
Planning should be economical, socially acceptable, and environmentally friendly that meet
the present as well as future requirement.
Water Supply System Objectives
•Safe and wholesome water
•Adequate quantity
•Readily available to encourage personal and household hygiene
The basic requirements for drinking water are that it should be:
- Free from pathogenic (disease causing) organisms
- Containing no compounds that have an adverse acute or long-term effect on human health.
- Fairly clear (i.e. low turbidity little colour).
- Not saline (salty).
- Containing no compounds that cause an offensive taste or smell.
- No causing corrosion or encrustation of the water supply system not staining clothes washed in it.
National Drinking-Water Standards
All people, whatever their stage of development and their social and economic
conditions have the right to have access to an adequate supply of safe drinking water.
To ensure the water supplied are of the right quality; quantity; continuity; coverage;
and, cost
Priorities for setting drinking-water standards
Water availability no matter the quality
Bacteriological safety
Toxicity safety
Aesthetics
Selection of contaminants for setting drinking water standards
There are generally insufficient resources available to deal with all the contaminants that
may occur in drinking-water
Therefore, priorities have to be set for every country
1) Standards should be set at first for those contaminants that occur frequently and at
significant concentrations in drinking-water and that have the greatest health impact.
Microbiological contaminants belong to this category.
2) All chemicals are not of equal concern.
Six criteria are usually applied in determining the priority chemical contaminants for which
drinking-water standards should be first established. These are:
▪ Severity and frequency of observed or suspected adverse health effects.
▪ Of importance are substances that are carcinogenic, and substances which may cause
reproductive and developmental effects.
▪ Extent of production and use.
Criteria for chemical contaminants…
▪ Ubiquity and abundance of the pollutant in water.
▪ Persistence in water. Contaminants that resist environmental degradation and
accumulate in humans, or in water, deserve attention.
▪ Exposure from drinking-water relative to other sources such as air or food can
be substantial.
▪ Population exposed. Attention should be paid to exposure involving a large
proportion of the general population, and to selective exposures of highly
vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, new-born children, the infant or the
elderly.
 Water Supply Components
The system comprises the following major elements:
Source (groundwater or surface water)
Raw water collection structures (intake structure, transmission line)
Treatment plant
Distribution systems (pipes, pumps, reservoir, different appurtenances)
Water supply system planning
Water supply system planning involves
- identification of service needs
- evaluation of options
- determination of optimal strategy to meet services
- development of implementation strategies

•The planning exercise involves

- collection of pertinent data
- consideration of relevant factors, and
- preparation of project documents and cost estimates
Water supply system planning…
Factors to be considered
Population. Factors affecting the future
increase in the population Quality of water. The analysis of the raw water
quality should be made to know the various
•Per capita Requirement. the various impurities present in it, and to decide on the required
factors and living standard and the treatment processes.
number and type of industries, number Treatment works. sizes and number of treatment
and type of the commercial units
establishments in the town etc. Pumping units for treated water.
•Public places, parks, institutions etc. Storage. The entire city or town should be divided
into several pressure zones and storage facility
•Industries. existing industries as well as should be provided in each zone.
future Distribution system. The distribution system should
•Sources of water. Detailed survey be designed according to the master plan of the
town, keeping in mind the future development.
•Conveyance of water. from source to Economy and reliability. should be economical and
water treatment units depend on the reliable
relative levels
 Water Demand
Water demand is defined as the volume of water required by users to satisfy their
needs.
Demand is the theoretical while consumption is actual
Design of a water supply scheme requires knowledge of water demand and its timely
variations.
Various components of a water demand are residential, commercial, industrial, public
water uses, fire demand and unaccounted for system losses.
 Water Demand…Components
iv. Demand for public use
i. Domestic water demand Quantity of water required for public utility purposes
The quantity of water required in the houses for such as for washing and sprinkling on roads, cleaning
drinking, bathing, cooking, washing etc it of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public
depends upon the habits, social status, climatic fountains etc. To meet the water demand for public use,
conditions and customs of the people provision of 5% of the total consumption is made
designing the water works for a city.
ii. Industrial demand
v. Fire demand
The water required in the industries mainly
depends on the type of industries, which are
existing in the city. The quantity of water demand vi. Loses and wastes
for industrial purpose is around 20 to 25% of the
total demand of the city. 1. Losses due to defective pipe joints, cracked and
broken pipes, faulty valves and fittings.
iii. Institution and commercial demand
2. Losses due to, consumers keep open their taps of
Universities, Institution, commercial buildings public taps even when they are not using the water and
and commercial centres including office allow the continuous wastage of water
buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping
centres, health centres, schools, temple, cinema 3. Losses due to unauthorised and illegal connections
houses, railway and bus stations etc
Terminology
Water availability
The availability of water in a given area can be taken as:
-The flow from upstream (if any)
-the (surface and groundwater) resources generated in the area by net rainfall
- priority allocations within the area, or downstream of the area
Water demand
A distinction can be made between consumptive demand (for households, industries
and agriculture), and non-consumptive demand (for habitat preservation, fisheries,
navigation, and salinity control at the river mouth)
Demand management
-Demand management is intervention in order to reduce the consumption of water.
-Demand management is applied in order to meet a water shortage, or a shortage of
money for infrastructural development, or to improve the water efficiency
 Balancing Demand and Supply
There are various ways how to allocate water.
The challenge is to find an optimal allocation that,
1) Adheres to laid-down legal and other regulations, and
2) Satisfies the water demand of all users as much as possible
Water allocation is not an issue when water availability far surpasses the demand.
In such situations all demands can be satisfied, and in fact there is no need for a regulated
allocation of water.
However, in many catchment areas and parts of river basins, water availability is frequently
less than the demand for it.
It is then necessary to find a suitable allocation of the scarce water.
Rationale for demand management

Water demand management is a tool for achieving harmony between the demand of water
and the availability of water.
In some cases, the choice is open between increasing the supply of water and reducing the
demand of water.
In other cases, only one of these strategies is feasible, at least in the short term
Pricing of urban water Free water dilemma (Savenije, 2000)

Buying water at excessive rates

Poor
Drinking unsafe water pay
Water for
free

Rich get
water for No service No cost
free to the poor recovery

Receive piped water directly into their

houses, for free

System No
Breakdown maintenance
Demand management tools
1) Domestic consumption can be controlled by measures such as
• installation of water meters (for those using flat rate), and charging a water fee;
• applying different tariffs for different housing areas;
• generation of awareness about prudent use of water;
• rationing of water (normally in case of critical shortage only).
2) The demand of water for industrial consumption can be controlled by measures
such as
• installation of water meters (for those on flat rate), and charging a water fee;
• applying different tariffs for different users and different seasons;
• promotion of new, water-efficient technology; and/or
• rationing of water (normally in case of critical shortage only).
Demand management tools…
3)The demand of water for irrigation can be controlled by measures such as
• charging a water fee that depends on the volume of water used (rather than the irrigated
area);
• applying different tariffs for different seasons;
• generation of awareness about prudent use of water;
• promotion of good operation and maintenance;
• promotion of new, water-efficient technology (crops and cultivation routines); and/or
• rationing of water, possibly by de-central administration (water user groups).
 Effect of Price on water demand
When water is sold by meter the theoretical price-demand relationship is given by;
Q = kPe
Where Q is the demand at price P per unit of consumption, k is a constant for the
particular units used and e is the coefficient which measures the 'elasticity' of the
demand
Since price increases will tend to cause a reduction in the demand, Q is proportional
to the inverse of P, hence e is negative
When e = -1.0, Q is proportional to 1/P, i.e. changes of P cause almost proportional
changes in Q
A low value of e indicates a high degree of inelasticity, e.g. at e = -0.2 a 29% price
increase of P would only cause Q to decrease by 5%.
-The opposite of a fee is a subsidy. A subsidy is
applied when the costs are not recovered from
the users, but are (wholly or partly) covered by
somebody else - for example other taxpayers -
the costs are there in any case, whether or not
they are recovered.
-While a fee in general will reduce the
consumption, a subsidy will in general increase
the consumption.
-Water fees can have several purposes: Cost
recovery; and/or (public) income generation;
and/or demand regulation.
-A fee can be flat or progressive. It can
distinguish between different uses of water
(domestic, industry, etc); different seasons;
and/or different income groups.
Fees that aim at demand regulation are sometimes called 'green taxes'.
-Such fees (or taxes) are levied in order to regulate consumption, production or behaviour
that affects pollution or utilisation of scarce resources.
-They aim at a better concordance between
• actual, immediate, direct (market) costs; and
• total, long-term social costs (including public health, environmental impact and
preservation of important resources)
- Green taxes can serve a fiscal purpose as well - or they can be fiscally neutral, if the
income from the taxes is used for subsidies of the same sector
 Pros and Cons of Regulation in demand and supply
Case 1: Increased supply Case II: Demand Management
Advantages: Advantages:
• General economic development can proceed • Low investment required (except for repair of
unaffected distribution network, which can be very
• Scope for serving all users with adequate expensive)
water • Public income can be generated by water fees
• Basis for increased turnover for the water • Incentive to industries and agriculture to
supply utility improve their efficiency
Disadvantages: • Raw water is preserved for alternative uses
• Increase in capital investments required downstream, including fisheries

• Opportunity costs - the net consumption of • Less sewage treatment capacity required
raw water becomes unavailable for other users Disadvantages:
downstream of the town
• Excessive demand management can affect
• Risk of adverse environmental impact general economic development
related to (i) increased withdrawal and (ii) • Risk of adverse social impact to the poor part
increased sewage discharges of the population
 Per-capita Demand
Water required per head per unit time
It depends on;
Climatic conditions
Size of community
Living standard of the people
Industrial and commercial activities
Pressure in the distribution system
System of sanitation
Cost of water
Variations in water demand
Seasonal: Dry Season require more water compared to wet season
Daily : More water demand during weekends and holidays
Hourly variations: Peak at 8 am – 10 am and 4 pm – 8.00 pm
Minimum Midnight – 4.00 am
Variations in water demand …

Annual average day demand (Qday-avg)

The average daily demand over a period of one year. For economical calculations and
fire-fighting.
Maximum day demand (Qday-max)
the amount of water required during the day of maximum consumption in a year.
Important for water treatment plants and water storages.
Peak hour demand (Qhr-max)
The amount of water required during the maximum hour in a given day. Important for
design of distribution systems.
Coincident draft (Qcd).
The sum of maximum daily demand, Qday-max, and the fire demand (QF).
Typically a factor of 1.75 is applied to the average annual daily flow to achieve the daily
maximum flow rate and 2.7 to get the maximum hourly flow rate
Design considerations
1. Design capacity of water treatment plant = Maximum day demand
2. Design capacity of water distribution system
– Maximum [peak hour flow, (maximum daily demand + fire flow demand)]
 Design Period
The complete water supply project includes huge and costly constructions such as
dams, reservoirs, treatment works and network of distribution pipelines.
These works cannot be replaced easily or capacities increased conveniently for future
expansions.
While designing and constructing these works, they should have sufficient capacity to
meet future demand of the town for number of years.
The number of years for which the designs of the water works have been done is
known as design period (22 – 30 years)
Water demand projections
- Initial year (0 – 5 years)
- Future year (10 years from the Initial year)
-Ultimate year (20 years from the Initial year)

Normal practice is to design water supply for the ultimate demand

 Population Forecasting

Logistic Growth Model

Population Growth Model

 Population Forecasting
Methods
Arithmetic Increase Method
Geometric Increase Method
Incremental Increase Method
Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
Simple Graphical Method
Comparative Graphical Method
Ratio Method
Logistic Curve Method
 Population Forecasting …
Example 1
The census figure of a city shows population as follows
Present population 50000
Before one decade 47100
Before two decades 43500
Before three decades 41000

Work out the probable population after one, two and three decades using arithmetic increase
and geometric increase method.
Solution
Example 2
Population at design year= 120,000
• Municipal demand = 610 lpcd
• Calculate
– Design flow of water treatment plant?
– Fire flow demand?
– Design capacity of water distribution system?
Use peak factors of 1.8 for maximum daily demand and 2.7 for maximum hourly
demand
Example 3
A water treatment plant is being planned to serve a population of 40,000 persons. The
average daily water demand is 178 litres. What should be the capacity of the plant and
distribution system?
Questions & Comments