when data is transferred from a sensor, then functional units

create a stack for data communication to an application or

service.

Data stack denotes the data received after the actions at

various in-between layers (or levels or domains).

Data stack denotes the data received after the actions at

various in-between layers (or levels or domains).
Layer refers to a stage during a set of actions at which the
action is taken as per a specific protocol or method, and then
the result passes to the next layer until the set of actions
complete. A layer may consist of various sublayers.

Physical layer refers to a layer at transmitting-node or at the

receiving node for the data bits. The transfer uses physical
systems and refers to wireless or wired transmission. This layer
is the lowest layer
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

IETF suggests the specifications for the layers, and the

engineering aspects for the IoT communication, networks
and applications.
International Telecommunication Union for
Telecommunication (ITU-T) suggested a reference model
for IoT domain, network and transport capabilities for the
IoT services and the applications at the application and
application-support layers.
European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI)
initiated the development of a set of standards for the
network, and devices and gateway domains for the
communication between machines(M2M)
 sensing, computing and communication circuit.

Info related
functioning of the 32
lights, the faulty
periodic intervals. lights, about the
presence or absence
of traffic in group
vicinity, and about the
ambient conditions,
whether cloudy, dark
or normal daylight.

The station remotely programs the group controllers, which automatically take an
appropriate action as per the conditions of traffic and light levels. It also directs remedial
actions in case a fault develops in a light at a specific location.
Seven-layer generalised OSI model (on left) and IETF six layer modified OSI model for
IoT/ M2M (in the middle), and similarity with the conceptual framework Equation (on
Consider a model for Internet of streetlights
Following are the layers for data interchange in the modified OSI model:
 L1: It consists of smart sensing and data-link circuits with each streetlight
transferring the sensed data to L2.
 L2: It consists of a group-controller which receives data of each group through
Bluetooth or ZigBee, aggregates and compacts the data for communication to the
Internet, and controls the group streetlights as per the program commands from a
central station.
 L3: It communicates a network stream on the Internet to the next layer.
 L4: The transport layer does device identity management, identity registry and data
routing to the next layer
 L5: The application-support layer does data managing, acquiring, organising and
analysing, and functionalities of standard protocols such as CoAP, UDP and IP.
 L6: The application layer enables remote programming and issue of central
station directions to switch on-off and commands of services to the controllers
along with monitoring each group of streetlights in the whole city
Data communicates from device end to application end. Each
layer processes the received data and creates a new data stack
which transfers it to the next layer.

Each layer processes the received data and creates a new data
stack which transfers it to the next layer.
ITU-T reference model RM1, its correspondence with six layers of modified OSI and a comparison with seven
levels suggested in CISCO IoT reference model RM2
• Three end devices, two routers, one sensor node connected
to coordinator ZigBee devices forming a star network.
• One end device, two routers and one coordinator forming a
mesh network.
• Mesh network router connects to an AP/gateway, which in
turn connects to a cellular network.
• Coordinator of mesh network connects to ZigBee IP border
router, which enables local ZigBee networks’ connectivity
to the Internet
• A router in star network connects to 6LoWPAN, which
connects an IEEE 802.15.4 devices network to IPv6
network.
• 1000s of byte communicate between the network layer
and IoT web objects.
• 127 B communication between the adaptation layer
IEEE 802.15.4 devices at single data transfer.
• IETF ND (Neighbour Discovery), ROLL (Routing Over
Low power Loss Network), RPL routing, IPv6/IPv4
network, TCP/UDP/ICMP transport, SSL/TLS security
layer protocols for the communication between web
object/application and ZigBee devices
• Wi-Fi is an interface technology that uses IEEE 802.11
protocol and enables the Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs).
• Wi-Fi connects distributed WLAN networks using the
Internet.
• The issues of Wi-Fi interfaces, APs and routers are higher
power consumption, interference and performance
degradation
 Wi-Fi interfaces connect within themselves or to an AP or wireless
router using Wi-Fi PCMCIA or PCI card or built-in circuit cards
 PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association) is an organization that developed a standard for
peripheral interface devices,
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is a hardware bus
standard used for connecting peripheral devices to a computer's
motherboard.
 SSID: ECE-LARA
Protocol: Wi-Fi 4 (802.11n)
Security type: WPA2-Personal
Manufacturer: MediaTek, Inc.
Description: MediaTek Wi-Fi 6 MT7921 Wireless LAN Card
Driver version: 23.32.2.558
Network band: 2.4 GHz
Network channel: 1
Link speed (Receive/Transmit): 216/162 (Mbps)
Link-local IPv6 address: fe80::7ed9:5edb:edad:6ae1%7
IPv4 address: 192.168.0.24
IPv4 DNS servers: 8.8.8.8 (Unencrypted)
8.8.4.4 (Unencrypted)
Physical address (MAC): E8-65-38-E0-C6-0F
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network management protocol used to
automatically assign IP addresses and other network configuration parameters to devices on a
network. This allows devices to communicate on an IP network without the need for manual
configuration.
The Wi-Fi interfaces, access points, routers features are as follows :

 Generally used are the 2.4 GHz IEEE 802.11b adapters or 5 GHz (802.11a or 802.11g) or
802.11n or other 802.11 series protocols.
 Interfaces use 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz antenna Offers mobility and roaming
 Have easy installation simplicity and flexibility
 Coverage range is 30 m to 125 m
 Used in a room having the limited-coverage 802.11a which coexists with b, coexists with b
and g
 Uses the 802.11b in wider coverage range because that is unaffected by walls and is meant
for hotspots for public usage having range data rate 11 Mbps (802.11b) within 30 m
 Uses 802.11g for high data rates up to 54 Mbps, and 802.11n for very high 600 Mbps,
using multiple antennas to increase data rates
 Interoperable with wireless as well as wired infrastructure which ensures compatibility and
enables easier access and hides complexity when enabling the wireless access to data,
media and streams, and applications and services.
 Provides a dynamic environment of network expendability and scalability.
 Scalability means a system can have a large number of smaller interfaces, routers and APs
 Provides security, integrity and reliability
 Uses Wireless Protected Access (WPA) and Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) security
sublayers
When discussing Bluetooth with AMP, the term AMP stands for Alternate
MAC/PHY. This is a feature in Bluetooth technology that enhances the data transfer
capabilities by allowing Bluetooth to use alternate physical layers (PHY) beyond the
traditional Bluetooth radio for high-speed data transmission.
RF transmitters, receivers, and transceivers are the simplest RF circuits. A
transceiver transmits the RF from one end and receives the RF from the
other end

A number of systems use RF modules for applications needing wireless

connectivity; for example, security, telemetry, telematics, fleet management,
home automation, healthcare, automobiles wireless tire pressure monitors,
back-up cameras and GPS navigation service, payment wallet, RFID and
maintenance
RF technology consists of the following elements
RF interface/physical layer, RF signals transmit between the nodes
or endpoints, i.e. the sensors, actuators, controllers and a gateway
where signals are received.

RF network architecture includes the overall system architecture,

backhaul, server and bidirectional end-devices with radio duty cycling in
the applications.
Asynchronous refers to all bytes in a frame transmit, which can
result in variation in time interval spacing or phase differences
between successive bytes and in-between wait interval.
• Bus refers to a number of systems connected through a
common set of control, address and data signals such that
the data signals are accepted by the device at destination
address only from a source at an instance.
• Bus signals may be sent in a serial or parallel manner.
• Communication can be over a bus when a number of
systems (chips, units, integrated circuits or ports or
interfacing circuits) connect through a common set of
interconnections.
• UART/USART
• Asynchronous:Asynchronous refers to all bytes in a frame
transmit, which can result in variation in time interval spacing
or phase differences between successive bytes and in-between
wait interval.
• This is because clock information of transmitter does not
transmit along with the data.
• The receiver clock also does not synchronise with the data.
Further, successive set of bytes may wait after transmission till
an acknowledgement is received from the receiving end.

All bytes in frame transmit with equal time spacing or equal

phase difference
SPI(Serial Peripheral Interface)
Source of serial synchronous output or input is called master
when it also controls the synchronising clock information to the
receiver
A receiver of serial synchronous input or output is called a slave

Four sets of signals, viz., SCLK, MISO, MOSI, and SS (slave

select) are used on four wires. When SS is active, then the device
functions as a slave

These lines are crucial for the data exchange between a master
device (e.g., a microcontroller) and one or more slave devices
(e.g., sensors, memory chips).
MISO
• This line is used to send data from the slave device back to the
master device.
• Data flows from the slave to the master.
MOSI
• This line is used to send data from the master device to the slave
device.
• Data flows from the master to the slave.
I2C
A number of device integrated circuits for sensors,
actuators, flash memory and touchscreens need data
exchanges in a number of processes.
Four potential modes of operation (viz. master transmit,
master receive, slave transmit and slave receive)
I2C bus has two lines that carry the signals—one line is for
the clock and one is for bidirectional data.
Master: Controls the bus
Initiates the communication
Generates the clock signal
Wired USB
USB is a standard for cables, connectors, and protocols used for
communication,
The USB standard defines how devices like keyboards, mice,
printers, external drives, and pen drives connect to and
communicate with computers.

Maximum 127 devices can connect with a host. USB standard

provides a fast (up to 12 Mbps) as well as a low-speed (up to 1.5
Mbps) serial transmission and reception between the host and serial
devices
USB three standards are USB 1.1 (1.5 and 12 Mbps), 2.0 (mini size
connector) 480 Mbps, 3.0 (micro size connector) 5 Gbps and 3.1
(super speed 10 Gbps).
USB data format and transfer serial signals are Non Return to Zero (NRZI) and
the clock is encoded by inserting synchronous code (SYNC) field before each
packet
The data transfer is of four types—
• controlled data transfer,
• bulk data transfer
• interrupt driven data transfer
• isosynchronous transfer.

USB is a polled bus. Polling mode functions as: A host controller regularly polls
the presence of a device as scheduled by the software. It sends a token packet. The
token consists of fields for type, direction, USB device address and device end-
point number.
The device does handshaking through a handshake packet, indicating successful
or unsuccessful transmission. A CRC field in a data packet permits error detection
A USB supports three types of pipes—
Stream with no USB-defined protocol is used when the connection
is already established and the data flow starts.
Default control is for providing access.
Message is for control functions of the device.
Uses passive broadcast medium and is wired connections based
Formatting of frame (serially sent bits as PDU of MAC layer) is
according to IEEE 802.2 standard
Uses a 48-bit MAC address assigned distinctly to each computer on
the LAN
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) resolves a 32 bit IP address at
Internet device LANs. Each frame at a LAN destination host media
address. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) resolves 48 bit
destination host media address into 32 bit IP addresses for Internet
communication.
Uses wired bus topology, and transmission speeds are 10 Mbps, 100
Mbps (unshielded and shielded wires), 1 Gbps (high-quality coaxial
cable), 4 Gbps (in twisted pair wiring mode) and 10 Gbps (fiber-optic
Collision Detection). The CSMA/CD mode is half-duplex (wired mode)
which means transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) signals can be sent on the same
wire or data path. Each one connected to a common communication channel
in the network listens and if the channel is idle then transmits. If not idle, it
waits and tries again. A mode is full-duplex in case of optical-fibre-based
Ethernet that transmits and receives signals separated on dedicated, one-way
channels.
Uses transmission data stack into frames at MAC layer, and each frame
includes a header. The header’s first eight bytes specify a preamble. The
preamble is for indicating start of a frame and is used for synchronisation.
Then the header has next six bytes’ destination address and then six bytes of
the source address. Then next six bytes are for the type field. These are
meaningful only for the higher network layers and define the length of the
data stack to the next layer. Next, minimum 72 bytes and maximum 1500
bytes of data follow the length definition. The last 4 bytes are for CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) for the frame sequence check.
1.Data-Driven Decision Making
Justification: IoT systems generate vast amounts of real-time data from
sensors and devices. BI tools are essential for analyzing this data to extract
meaningful insights, trends, and patterns. Without BI, organizations may
struggle to process and interpret the massive volumes of data produced by
IoT devices, missing opportunities for informed decision-making.

2. Enhanced Operational Efficiency

Justification: BI tools help optimize IoT system performance by identifying
inefficiencies or malfunctions in connected devices. For example, IoT
sensors in a manufacturing plant can monitor machinery health, while BI
analytics can predict when a machine is likely to fail, enabling proactive
maintenance and reducing downtime.
3. Predictive Analytics
Justification: With IoT data, predictive analytics becomes a powerful tool
for forecasting future outcomes based on historical data. This helps in
predictive maintenance, demand forecasting, and customer behavior
analysis. BI platforms provide the analytics and visualization capabilities
needed to make accurate predictions, improving the system’s
responsiveness to future conditions.
4. Personalized Customer Experience
Justification: IoT systems often involve user interactions through smart
devices (like smart homes or wearable tech). BI allows companies to
analyze user behavior and preferences, enabling them to deliver more
personalized services and improve user experience. The data gathered
from IoT devices helps businesses tailor services to individual needs,
which is a key advantage in customer-centric industries.
5. Real-Time Monitoring and Alerts
Justification: IoT systems require real-time monitoring to ensure they
function correctly and to quickly respond to changes or failures. BI tools
provide real-time dashboards and alert systems that enable businesses
to monitor IoT systems continuously, ensuring better control and faster
response to issues.

6. Strategic Insights and Business Growth

Justification: Beyond operational efficiency, BI provides strategic
insights that can shape business growth. By integrating BI into IoT
architectures, companies can identify new business models, revenue
streams, and areas for expansion. For instance, IoT data might reveal
customer preferences or market demand trends, helping businesses
refine their product offerings.
7. Security and Risk Management
Justification: IoT systems face significant security challenges. BI
can help monitor and analyze data for unusual patterns or security
breaches. BI tools can assist in identifying vulnerabilities or potential
threats, enabling timely intervention and improving overall security
management for the IoT architecture.

8. Data Integration and Collaboration

Justification: BI tools allow seamless integration of IoT data with
other enterprise systems like ERP, CRM, and supply chain
management tools. This integration enhances cross-functional
collaboration and enables businesses to view their operations
holistically. With IoT feeding data into the BI ecosystem, different
departments can gain insights that enhance overall business
performance.
9. Scalability and Adaptability
Justification: As IoT systems grow in scale, the amount of data
generated increases exponentially. BI platforms help handle this
scalability by enabling efficient data processing, storage, and
analytics. The architecture of IoT systems can adapt more easily to
growing data requirements when integrated with robust BI tools.

10. Competitive Advantage

Justification: In a competitive landscape, businesses that leverage
IoT and BI gain a significant edge. Real-time data analysis can lead to
quicker decision-making, faster innovation, and a better understanding
of market conditions. Organizations that integrate BI into their IoT
architecture are better equipped to act on insights faster than their
competitors.
Conclusion:
While IoT provides the raw data and automation capabilities,
Business Intelligence ensures that the data is transformed into
actionable insights, supporting decision-making, improving operational
efficiency, and driving strategic growth. Therefore, integrating BI into IoT
system architecture is not just beneficial, but crucial for businesses to
fully leverage the potential of IoT technologies.
 BI TOOLS
• Microsoft Power BI
• Tableau
• IBM Watson IoT and Cognos Analytics
• Google Data Studio
• SAP Analytics Cloud
• Qlik Sense
• TIBCO Spotfire
• Sisense
• Zoho Analytics
• Looker (Google Cloud)
 Microsoft Power BI
- Features:
- Integration with a variety of IoT data sources (Azure IoT Hub, Stream Analytics, etc.)
- Real-time data visualization and dashboard creation
- Predictive analytics through integration with machine learning models
- Customizable reports and interactive visuals
- Use Case: Power BI can be integrated with Azure IoT solutions to visualize and monitor real-time data from
sensors, devices, and edge systems. It's often used for predictive maintenance, monitoring industrial IoT, and
business process optimization.

2. Tableau
- Features:
- Advanced data visualization with interactive dashboards
- Integration with cloud platforms and IoT data sources (AWS IoT, Azure IoT, Google Cloud IoT)
- Data analytics capabilities such as forecasting and trend analysis
- Easy collaboration and sharing across teams
- Use Case: Tableau is commonly used to visualize large-scale IoT data for smart cities, energy management,
and IoT-based customer analytics. Its real-time data integration supports the monitoring and optimization of
connected devices.

3. IBM Watson IoT and Cognos Analytics

- Features:
 4. Google Data Studio
- Features:
- Easy-to-use interface with customizable dashboards
- Integration with Google Cloud IoT, BigQuery, and other cloud data sources
- Real-time data streaming and visualizations
- Collaboration features for teams
- Use Case: Google Data Studio is often used for monitoring IoT applications in smart homes, agriculture,
and supply chain management by leveraging data from connected devices and sensors to provide actionable
insights and visual reports.
5. SAP Analytics Cloud
- Features:
- Built-in IoT data analysis capabilities with real-time monitoring
- Predictive analytics and machine learning integration
- Business process optimization through advanced analytics
- Cloud-based, with seamless integration with SAP HANA and SAP IoT platforms
- Use Case: SAP Analytics Cloud is frequently used in large-scale industrial IoT applications, enabling
businesses to analyze sensor data, manage resources, and optimize production processes in industries like
manufacturing, utilities, and logistics.
6. Qlik Sense
- Features:
- IoT data visualization and analytics with advanced self-service BI features
- Real-time data integration and monitoring
- AI-driven analytics and predictive insights
- Interactive dashboards with drag-and-drop functionality
- Use Case: Qlik Sense is often employed in IoT environments for predictive maintenance, fleet
 7. TIBCO Spotfire
- Features:
- Advanced data visualization and predictive analytics
- Integration with IoT platforms (AWS IoT, Azure IoT, TIBCO's own IoT solutions)
- Real-time streaming analytics for monitoring and alerting
- Customizable and interactive dashboards
- Use Case: TIBCO Spotfire is used for applications like smart grid management, healthcare IoT, and
connected vehicle monitoring. It offers the ability to process IoT data streams in real-time and apply machine
learning for predictive insights.

## 8. Sisense
- Features:
- Unified data analytics platform for IoT and other data sources
- Real-time data processing with API integration for IoT systems
- Advanced data visualization and embedded analytics capabilities
- AI and machine learning-driven insights
- Use Case: Sisense is ideal for IoT data analysis in industries such as retail (connected shopping
experiences), healthcare (patient monitoring), and logistics (supply chain tracking). It can process large-scale
data from connected devices and present it in actionable dashboards.
## 9. Zoho Analytics
- Features:
- Integrates with IoT platforms via API and other data connectors
- Automated reporting and data visualization
- AI-driven insights with built-in predictive analytics
- Cloud-based for easy access and collaboration
- Use Case: Zoho Analytics is commonly used for small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs) that require
affordable BI solutions to monitor IoT systems. It’s useful in retail IoT, home automation, and fleet management
applications.

10. Looker (Google Cloud)

- Features:
- Powerful data modeling and visualization tools
- Integration with Google Cloud IoT and other cloud services
- Real-time analytics and embedded data insights
- Supports machine learning and AI for advanced data analysis
- Use Case: Looker is frequently used in healthcare IoT for patient monitoring, smart agriculture for sensor-based
data analysis, and in financial services for risk management based on IoT data. It provides deep insights by
connecting IoT data to business outcomes.

## Conclusion:
Each of these BI tools has strengths in different areas of IoT data analytics, whether it's real-time monitoring,
predictive analytics, or large-scale data visualization. The choice of BI tool depends on the specific needs of the IoT
Establishing Near Field Communication (NFC) systems can
present several design issues, particularly in terms of
hardware, software, security, and user experience. Below
are some key design challenges:
 1. Power Management
- Issue: NFC is a low-power communication system, but ensuring that NFC devices, especially passive ones
(like NFC tags), have enough power to transmit data can be challenging.
- Solution: Implementing efficient power harvesting mechanisms for passive devices is essential, as is
designing energy-efficient protocols for active devices.

2. Range Limitations
- Issue: NFC operates over very short distances (typically within 4 cm). This limitation can pose challenges in
terms of usability, requiring users to bring devices very close together.
- Solution: Designers must ensure accurate alignment between devices or tags to prevent communication
errors and user frustration.

3. Interference
- Issue: NFC operates on the same frequency as other wireless communication systems (13.56 MHz), which
can result in interference or signal degradation, particularly in environments with multiple wireless systems.
- Solution: Careful frequency management and signal processing techniques are necessary to avoid cross-
talk and interference from other devices.

4. Security
- Issue: NFC's proximity-based communication makes it vulnerable to eavesdropping, data corruption, and
relay attacks (man-in-the-middle attacks).
- Solution: Implement strong encryption, authentication mechanisms, and secure communication protocols to
protect data. For example, protocols like secure element (SE) and Host Card Emulation (HCE) can enhance
 5. Compatibility
- Issue: Devices from different manufacturers may not always be fully compatible, leading to issues in cross-
platform NFC communication.
- Solution: Ensuring compliance with NFC standards (such as ISO/IEC 14443 or ISO/IEC 18092) can improve
interoperability between devices from different vendors.

6. Data Transfer Speed

- Issue: NFC offers relatively low data transfer speeds (up to 424 kbps), which can be insufficient for some
applications requiring higher bandwidth.
- Solution: NFC should be used for applications where high data rates are not crucial, such as contactless
payments or access control. For larger data transfers, fallback to other wireless technologies like Bluetooth might
be necessary.

7. User Interface Design

- Issue: Users may have difficulty understanding how to use NFC, especially since the technology is less
visible compared to Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. The interaction often involves precise alignment of devices.
- Solution: The design should offer clear visual or tactile cues to guide users on how to position devices
properly. Feedback mechanisms, such as audio or vibration, can improve user experience.
 8. Cost and Size Constraints
- Issue: For small, passive NFC devices like tags, size, and cost can be a significant limitation. The tags
must be small enough to fit into compact spaces and cheap enough for mass production.
- Solution: Innovations in miniaturization and cost-effective materials are essential to reduce both the size
and price of NFC components without sacrificing performance.

9. Environmental Considerations
- Issue: NFC performance can be affected by environmental factors like metal surfaces, water, and other
obstacles that might block or degrade the signal.
- Solution: Designers need to use shielding techniques and choose appropriate materials to ensure reliable
performance in diverse environments.

By addressing these design issues, developers and engineers can create robust and efficient NFC systems
suitable for a wide range of applications, from mobile payments to smart cards and IoT devices.