CONTROL SYSTEMS

UNIT-II
Mathematical modelling of physical
systems
 UNIT-II
 Mathematical modelling of physical
systems: Mathematical modelling and
transfer functions of electrical, mechanical
and electro-mechanical elements, DC servo
motors, two-phase AC servo motors,
synchros.
 Control Systems - Mathematical Models
 The control systems can be represented with a set of
mathematical equations known as mathematical model.
These models are useful for analysis and design of control
systems.
 Analysis of control system means finding the output when

we know the input and mathematical model. Design of

control system means finding the mathematical model when
we know the input and the output.
 The following mathematical models are mostly used.
 Differential equation model(Optimal control theory)
 Transfer function model(SISO systems)
 State space model(MIMO systems)
 Differential Equation Model

 Differential equation model is a time domain

mathematical model of control systems.
Follow these steps for differential equation
model.
 Apply basic laws to the given control system.
 Get the differential equation in terms of input

and output by eliminating the intermediate

variable(s).
 Consider the following electrical system as
shown in the following figure.
 This circuit consists of R,L and C.
 All these electrical elements are connected

in series.
 The input voltage applied to this circuit

is vi and the voltage across the capacitor is

the output voltage vo.
The above equation is a second order differential equation.
Transfer Function
 The transfer function of a linear, time-
invariant system is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace
transform of the input (driving function)
under the assumption that all initial
conditions are zero.
 If x(t)) and y(t)) are the input and output of
an LTI system, then the corresponding
Laplace transforms are X(s) and Y(s)).
 Therefore, the transfer function of LTI
system is equal to the ratio of Y(s) and X(s)
Advantages & features of T.F
 1.It gives mathematical model of all system components.
 2.It is defined only for the linear systems and strictly time
invariant system
 3.As it uses a LT approach, it converts time domain
equations to simple algebraic equations.
 4.It suggests operational method of expressing equations
which relate o/p to i/p.
 5.It helps in determining the important information about
the system i.e poles, zeroes, characteristic equations ect
 6.If transfer function of a system is known, the response of
the system to any input can be determined very easily.
 7.Finding inverse, the real variables can be easily expressed
in the time domain.
 Disadvantages of Transfer function
 1. Transfer function does not take into account the initial
conditions.
 2. The transfer function can be defined for linear and time

invariant systems only.

 3. It does not provide any information concerning the

physical structure of the system. i.e whether it is electrical,

mechanical ,thermal or hydraulic can’t be judged
 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Ex1 Find the transfer function Eo(s)/Ei(s) for the circuit shown below
MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
 Ex2. Find the transfer function of the following circuit.

 Sol)Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law

 Take LT of eq 1&2 with zero initial conditions

 We obtain

Ex2 Find the T.F of the following circuit

Apply KVL to the above loops

 Eliminating I1(s) from Equations (1) and (2) and
writing Ei (s) in terms of I2(s),
 we find the transfer function between Eo(s) and Ei (s)

to be
2.Mechanical system
 The dynamics of mechanical system is expressed by the
application of Newton’s law of motion.
 The mechanical system can be classified into
 i. Translational mechanical system
 ii. Rotational mechanical system.
 i. Mechanical Translational system:
 A mechanical system moving along a straight line or

axis is known as Translational mechanical system.

 The three ideal elements are Mass, spring or stiffness

and damper(dash-pot)
 The variables associated with these types of system are
Force(F), Displacement(x) or time derivative of
displacement i.e velocity and acceleration.
2.Mechanical systems
 Basic types of Mechanical systems
The weight of the mechanical system is represented by the element
of mass and it is assumed to be concentrated at the centre of the body.
The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by a spring.
The friction existing in mechanical system can be represented by the
dash-pot.
When a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, it is
opposed by opposing forces due to mass, friction and elasticity of the
system.
Forces acting on mechanical body governed by Newton’s second law
of motion.
For Translational system it states that the sum of forces acting on a
body is zero.
 ii.Rotational Mechanical Systems
 Rotational mechanical systems move about a fixed axis.
These systems mainly consist of three basic elements.
Those are moment of inertia(J), torsional
spring and dashpot.
 The weight of the Rotational mechanical system is

represented by the moment of inertia(J ).

 The elastic deformation of the body can be represented by

a torsional spring with stiffness K.

 The friction existing in Rotational mechanical system can

be represented by the dash-pot.

 When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical
system, then it is opposed by opposing torques due to
moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system.
 Torques acting on rotational mechanical system is

governed by Newton’s second law of motion.

 It states that the sum of torques acting on the system is

zero(or) sum of applied torques equal to sum of

opposing torques on a body.
LIST OF SYMBOLS USED IN MECHANICAL ROTATIONAL SYSTEM
 Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements
individually.
 Moment of Inertia
 In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic

energy. Similarly, in rotational mechanical system, moment

of inertia stores kinetic energy.
 If a torque is applied on a body having moment of

inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due to

the moment of inertia.
 This opposing torque is proportional to angular
acceleration of the body.
 Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
 Torsional Spring
 In translational mechanical system, spring stores potential
energy. Similarly, in rotational mechanical system,
torsional spring stores potential energy.
 If a torque is applied on torsional spring K, then it is

opposed by an opposing torque due to the elasticity of

torsional spring. This opposing torque is proportional to the
angular displacement of the torsional spring.
 Assume that the moment of inertia and friction are

negligible.
Dashpot
 If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed
by an opposing torque due to the rotational friction of
the dashpot.
 This opposing torque is proportional to the angular

velocity of the body.

 Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are

negligible.
Electrical analogous of Mechanical Translational systems
 The three basic elements Mass, dash-pot and spring that are used in
modelling of Mechanical Translational systems are analogous to
Resistance, inductance and capacitance of electrical systems.
 The input force in mechanical system is analogous to either voltage

source or current source in electrical systems.

 The output velocity in mechanical system is analogous to either

voltage or current in electrical systems.

 Since electrical systems has two types of inputs either voltage or

current source, there are two types of analogies: force-voltage

analogy and force-current analogy.
Ex1.
 Servo motors
The principle of the Servomotor is similar to that of the other
electromagnetic motor, but the construction and the operation are
different.

A servomotor consists of an electric motor coupled with a sensor for

position feedback.Servomotors are used in feedback control systems as
the output actuators.
Hence, servomotors are also called as control motors.
Servomotors are not used for continuous energy conversion. The
power ratings of servomotors vary from a fraction of a watt to a few
hundred watts.
The servomotors have low rotor inertia and hence they have a high
speed of response.
Types of DC Servo Motor
 Based on speed control, the DC servomotors can be
classified as
 i.Armature controlled servomotor
 ii.Field controlled servomotors.
 The circuit diagram, block diagram and transfer

function of these are given below:

This motor has two control modes i.e field control and armature
control . Now let us find
i.Transfer Function of a Field Controlled DC Servomotor
ii.Transfer Function of a Armature Controlled DC Servomotor
i.Transfer Function of a Field Controlled DC Servomotor:

 The speed of a dc motor can be varied by varying the field

current. The speed can be increased beyond base speed by
decreasing the field current.
 The Fig. shows the Transfer Function of a Field Controlled DC
Motor.
 In this type of control constant torque operation is not possible
as the armature current would increase to dangerous values at
low fluxes. It is therefore necessary to maintain the armature
current at a constant value at all flux levels.
 The field current is varied. The armature is also supplied by
means of a phase controlled rectifier to maintain constant
armature current. While deriving the transfer function the effects
of saturation and armature reaction are neglected.
The torque developed by the motor

The air gap flux is proportional to field current for usual operation of motor.
Therefore we have

Thus torque developed is

Since armature current maintained constant
Therefore
 From equ2 &4 we have

Taking L.T of equ 3&5 assuming zero initial conditions

we get
ii.Transfer function of Armature Controlled DC Servomotor
 In this motor, the field current is held constant and armature current is
varied to control the torque.
 Ra= Armature Resistance
 La = Armature Inductance
 Ia = Armature Current
 Va = Armature Voltage
Wm = Angular Velocity
 Eb = Back EMF
 J = Moment of Inertia
 If = Field Current
 Lf = Field Inductance
 Tm = Torque Produced(N-m)
 Eb = Back EMF produced by the motor
 The field is supplied with constant current. Thus in this no
field coils are necessary because constant field can be
supplied with the help of permanent magnets.
 The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the

product of armature current and air gap flux, which is

proportional to field current.
 For constant flux, the motor back emf eb is proportional to speed
which is given as

Eb = Kb (dθ/dt) -----(1) where Kb is back emf constant
 By applying KVL for the armature circuit is
 ea = ia Ra + La *(dia/dt) + eb -------(2)
 The load torque equation is given by
 J * (d2 θ/dt2) + B * (dθ/dt) = Tm = K1 ia ----(3)
 of equ1 to 3 assuming zero initial conditions
Taking L.T
The transfer function of armature controlled DC servo motor is shown
below.

θ(s)/Va(s) = (K1/(Js2 + Bs)*(Las + Ra)) /1 + (K1KbKs)/(Js2 +

Bs)*(Las+Ra)
Fig .The block dia. Of armature controlled DC servomotor
AC Servomotor
 A type of servomotor that uses AC electrical input in

order to produce mechanical output in the form of

precise angular velocity is known as AC servo motor.
 AC servomotors are basically two-phase induction

motors certain for certain design features.

 AC motors are lower cost,higher efficiency and less

maintenance.
 The output power achieved from AC servomotor ranges

between some watt to a few hundred watts.

 While the operating frequency range is between 50 to

400 Hz.
 It operates on servomechanism where the position
feedback is used to control the speed as well as the
final position of the motor.
 Basically, due to the applied electrical input, the motor

rotates and obtains a certain angle, the position of the

rotor is provided again to the input where it is
compared in order to check whether the achieved
position is desired or not.
 In this way, precisely the accurate position is obtained.
Construction of AC Servomotor

 We have already said in the beginning that an AC

servomotor is regarded as a two-phase induction motor.
 However, AC servomotors have some special design

features which are not present in normal induction motor,

thus it is said that two somewhat differs in construction.
 It is mainly composed of two major units, stator and

rotor.
 Stator: First have a look at the figure shown below,

representing stator of AC servomotor

 AC motor has two main parts, stator and rotor as shown
in figure.
 The stator contains two windings displaced by 90°, in

space.
 Out of the two windings, one is called as main or fixed

winding while the other one is called control winding.

 A constant ac signal as input is provided to the main

winding of the stator.

 However, as the name suggests, the control winding is

provided with the variable control voltage. This variable

control voltage is obtained from the servo amplifier.
It is to be noted here that to have a rotating magnetic field, the voltage
applied to the control winding(Vc) must be 90° out of phase w.r.t the
input AC voltage(Vr).
The rotating magnetic field interacts with currents producing a torque
on the rotor in the direction of field rotation.
The connection diagram of the two Phase AC Servo motor
 The speed and torque of the rotor are
controlled by the phase difference between the
control voltage and the reference phase
voltage. By reversing the phase difference
from leading to lagging or vice versa, the
direction of the rotation of the rotor can be
reversed.
 The torque-speed characteristic of the two-

phase AC servomotor is shown in the figure

below:
 The negative slope represents a high rotor
resistance and provides the motor with
positive damping for better stability. The
curve is linear for almost various control
voltages.
Torque-Speed Characteristics
 The figure below represents the torque-speed
characteristics of the two-phase induction motor:
The rotating part of the motor and the load can be modelled by
 We have already discussed that the motor must
be designed in a way to provide linear torque-
speed characteristics, in which the torque
changes in a linear manner with the speed.
 However, as we have seen in the above figure
that the torque-speed characteristics here are
not actually linear.
 This is so because it depends on the ratio of
reactance to resistance.
 The low value of the ratio of reactance to
resistance implies that motor possesses high
resistance and low reactance, in such case, the
characteristics is more linear that high value of
the ratio for reactance to resistance.
 Features
 These are low weight devices.
 It offers reliability as well as stability in operation.
 There is not much noise generated at the time of
operation.
 It offers almost linear torque-speed characteristics.
 As brushes and slip rings are not present here thus
it reduces maintenance cost.
 Applications of AC Servomotors
 Due to the various advantages offered by the AC
servomotors, these majorly finds applications in
the instruments that operate on servomechanism,
in position
 Synchro
 The Synchro is a type of transducer
which transforms the angular position of the shaft into
an electric signal.
 It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position

sensor.
 The error occurs in the system because of the misalignment

of the shaft.
 The transmitter and the control transformer are the two

main parts of the synchro.

 Synchro pair

 The controls synchros is used for error detection in

positional control systems. Their systems consist two
units.
 They are
 Synchro Transmitter
 Synchro receiver
 The synchro always works with these two parts.
 The detail explanation of synchros transmitter and
receiver is given below.
 Synchros Transmitter – Their construction is similar to

the three phase alternator. The stator of the synchros is

made of steel for reducing the iron losses.
 The stator is slotted for housing the three phase

windings.
 The axis of the stator winding is kept 120º apart from

each other.
 The AC voltage is applied to the rotor of the transmitter
and it is expressed as
 Where V – r.ms.value of rotor voltage
r
ωc – carrier frequency
 The coils of the stator windings are connected in star.
The rotor of the synchros is a dumbbell in shape, and a
concentric coil is wound on it.
 The AC voltage is applied to the rotor with the help of

slip rings. The constructional feature of the synchros is

shown in the figure below.
 Consider the voltage is applied to the rotor of the
transmitter as shown in the figure above.
 The voltage applied to the rotor induces the magnetizing
current and an alternating flux along its axis.
 The voltage is induced in the stator winding because of

the mutual induction between the rotor and stator flux.

 The flux linked in the stator winding is equal to the

cosine of the angle between the rotor and stator.

 The voltage is induced in the stator winding.
 Let Vs1, Vs2, Vs3 be the voltages generated in the stator
windings S1, S2, and S3 respectively. The figure below
shows the rotor position of the synchro transmitter.
 The rotor axis makes an angle θ concerning the stator
r
windings S2.

 The three terminals of the stator windings are

 The variation in the stator terminal axis concerning the
rotor is shown in the figure below.

 When the rotor angle becomes zero, the maximum

current is produced in the stator windings S 2. The zero
position of the rotor is used as a reference for
determining the rotor angular position.
 The output of the transmitter is given to stator winding
of the control transformer which is shown in the above
figure.
 The current of the same and magnitude flow through

the transmitter and control transformer of the synchros.

Because of the circulating current, the flux is
established between the air gap flux of the control
transformer.
 The flux axis of the control transformer and the
transmitter is aligned in the same position.
 The voltage generates by the rotor of control

transformer is equal to the cosine of the angle between

the rotors of the transmitter and the controller.
 The voltage is given as
 Where φ – angular displacement between the rotor axes of
transmitter and controller.
Φ – 90º the axis between the rotor of transmitter and control
transformer is perpendicular to each other.
 The above figure shows the zero position of the rotor of
transmitter and receiver.
 Consider the position of the rotor and the transmitter is
changing in the same direction. An angle θ R deflects the rotor
of the transmitter and that of the control transformer is kept
θC. The total angular separation between the rotors is Φ =
(90º – θR + θC)
 The rotor terminal voltage of the Synchro transformer is
given as
 The synchro transmitter and the control transformer
together used for detecting the error.
 The voltage equation shown above is equal to the shaft

position of the rotors of control transformer and

transmitter.
 The error signal is applied to the differential amplifier
which gives input to the servo motor.
 The gear of the servo motor rotates the rotor of the control

transformer
 The figure above shows the output of the synchro error
detector which is a modulated signal.
 The modulating wave above shown the misalignment

between the rotor position and the carrier wave.

E-reference
 https://www.uomus.edu.iq/img/lectures21/M
UCLecture_2022_5193840.pdf
 https://www.circuitbread.com/tutorials/math
ematical-modelling-of-physical-systems-1-2
 https://www.electrical4u.com/mathematical-
modelling-of-various-system/
 https://www.jntua.ac.in/gate-online-classes/r
egistration/downloads/material/a159050790
847.pdf
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/

control_systems/
control_systems_modelling_mechanical.htm
 https://circuitglobe.com/servo-motor.html
 https://www.electrical4u.com/what-is-servo-
motor/
 https://www.rcet.org.in/uploads/academics/r
ohini_95864572965.pdf
https://www.rcet.org.in/uploads/academi
cs/rohini_21101940410.pdf
https://circuitglobe.com/synchro.html
https://www.eeeguide.com/transfer-function-of-a-field-co
ntrolled-dc-motor/
https://www.watelectrical.com/what-is-dc-servo-motor-
principle-and-its-applications/
 http://www.faadooengineers.com/online-stu
dy/post/eee/control-system-i/338/transfer-fu
nction-of-an-armature-controlled-dc-motor
 https://madeeasy.in/uploads/examsolution/0
3.ControlSystems.pdf
 https://www.elprocus.com/ac-servo-motor/#
:~:text=AC%20Servo%20Motor%20for%20T
ransfer,the%20input%20of%20the%20syste
m.&text=Tm%20%3D%20Tl%2C%20then%
20we%20can%20get%20the%20transfer%2
0function
.
 https://electronicscoach.com/ac-
servomotor.html