Factoring

Polynomials
Chapter Sections
13.1 – The Greatest Common Factor
13.2 – Factoring Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c
13.3 – Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax2 + bx + c
13.4 – Factoring Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c
by Grouping
13.5 – Factoring Perfect Square Trinomials and Diffe
rence of Two Squares
13.6 – Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring
13.7 – Quadratic Equations and Problem Solving
§
13.1

The Greatest Common Factor

Factors

Factors (either numbers or polynomials)

When an integer is written as a product of integers, each
of the integers in the product is a factor of the original
number.
When a polynomial is written as a product of
polynomials, each of the polynomials in the product is a
factor of the original polynomial.
Factoring – writing a polynomial as a product of
polynomials.
Greatest Common Factor

Greatest common factor – largest quantity that is a

factor of all the integers or polynomials involved.

Finding the GCF of a List of Integers or Terms

1) Prime factor the numbers.
2) Identify common prime factors.
3) Take the product of all common prime factors.
• If there are no common prime factors, GCF is 1.
 Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of each list of numbers.
1) 12 and 8
12 = 2 · 2 · 3
8=2·2·2
So the GCF is 2 · 2 = 4.
2) 7 and 20
7=1·7
20 = 2 · 2 · 5
There are no common prime factors so the
GCF is 1.
 Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of each list of numbers.
1) 6, 8 and 46
6=2·3
8=2·2·2
46 = 2 · 23
So the GCF is 2.
2) 144, 256 and 300
144 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3
256 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2
300 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 5 · 5
So the GCF is 2 · 2 = 4.
 Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of each list of terms.
1) x3 and x7
x3 = x · x · x
x7 = x · x · x · x · x · x · x
So the GCF is x · x · x = x3
2) 6x5 and 4x3
6x5 = 2 · 3 · x · x · x
4x3 = 2 · 2 · x · x · x
So the GCF is 2 · x · x · x = 2x3
 Greatest Common Factor
Example
Find the GCF of the following list of terms.
a3b2, a2b5 and a4b7
a3 b2 = a · a · a · b · b
a2 b5 = a · a · b · b · b · b · b
a4 b7 = a · a · a · a · b · b · b · b · b · b · b
So the GCF is a · a · b · b = a2b2
Notice that the GCF of terms containing variables will use the
smallest exponent found amongst the individual terms for each
variable.
 Factoring Polynomials
The first step in factoring a polynomial is to
find the GCF of all its terms.
Then we write the polynomial as a product by
factoring out the GCF from all the terms.
The remaining factors in each term will form a
polynomial.
 Factoring out the GCF
Example
Factor out the GCF in each of the following
polynomials.

1) 6x3 – 9x2 + 12x =

3 · x · 2 · x2 – 3 · x · 3 · x + 3 · x · 4 =
3x(2x2 – 3x + 4)
2) 14x3y + 7x2y – 7xy =
7 · x · y · 2 · x2 + 7 · x · y · x – 7 · x · y · 1 =
7xy(2x2 + x – 1)
 Factoring out the GCF
Example
Factor out the GCF in each of the following
polynomials.

1) 6(x + 2) – y(x + 2) =
6 · (x + 2) – y · (x + 2) =
(x + 2)(6 – y)
2) xy(y + 1) – (y + 1) =
xy · (y + 1) – 1 · (y + 1) =
(y + 1)(xy – 1)
 Factoring
Remember that factoring out the GCF from the terms of
a polynomial should always be the first step in factoring
a polynomial.
This will usually be followed by additional steps in the
process.
Example
Factor 90 + 15y2 – 18x – 3xy2.
90 + 15y2 – 18x – 3xy2 = 3(30 + 5y2 – 6x – xy2) =
3(5 · 6 + 5 · y2 – 6 · x – x · y2) =
3(5(6 + y2) – x (6 + y2)) =
3(6 + y2)(5 – x)
 §
13.2

Factoring Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c

Factoring Trinomials
Recall by using the FOIL method that
F O I L
(x + 2)(x + 4) = x2 + 4x + 2x + 8
= x2 + 6x + 8
To factor x2 + bx + c into (x + one #)(x + another #),
note that b is the sum of the two numbers and c is
the product of the two numbers.
So we’ll be looking for 2 numbers whose product is c
and whose sum is b.
Note: there are fewer choices for the product, so
that’s why we start there first.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 + 13x + 30.
Since our two numbers must have a product of 30 and
a sum of 13, the two numbers must both be positive.
Positive factors of 30 Sum of Factors
1, 30 31
2, 15 17

3, 10 13
Note, there are other factors, but once we find a pair
that works, we do not have to continue searching.
So x2 + 13x + 30 = (x + 3)(x + 10).
 Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 – 11x + 24.
Since our two numbers must have a product of 24 and
a sum of -11, the two numbers must both be negative.
Negative factors of 24 Sum of Factors
– 1, – 24 – 25
– 2, – 12 – 14

– 3, – 8 – 11

So x2 – 11x + 24 = (x – 3)(x – 8).

 Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 – 2x – 35.
Since our two numbers must have a product of – 35 and a
sum of – 2, the two numbers will have to have different signs.
Factors of – 35 Sum of Factors
– 1, 35 34
1, – 35 – 34
– 5, 7 2

5, – 7 –2

So x2 – 2x – 35 = (x + 5)(x – 7).
 Prime Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 – 6x + 10.
Since our two numbers must have a product of 10 and a
sum of – 6, the two numbers will have to both be
negative.
Negative factors of 10 Sum of Factors
– 1, – 10 – 11
– 2, – 5 –7
Since there is not a factor pair whose sum is – 6,
x2 – 6x +10 is not factorable and we call it a prime
polynomial.
 Check Your Result!

You should always check your factoring results by

multiplying the factored polynomial to verify that it
is equal to the original polynomial.
Many times you can detect computational errors or
errors in the signs of your numbers by checking your
results.
 §
13.3

Factoring Trinomials of the Form ax2 + bx + c

Factoring Trinomials

Returning to the FOIL method,

F O I L
(3x + 2)(x + 4) = 3x2 + 12x + 2x + 8
= 3x2 + 14x + 8
To factor ax2 + bx + c into (#1·x + #2)(#3·x + #4), note
that a is the product of the two first coefficients, c is
the product of the two last coefficients and b is the
sum of the products of the outside coefficients and
inside coefficients.
Note that b is the sum of 2 products, not just 2
numbers, as in the last section.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 25x2 + 20x + 4.
Possible factors of 25x2 are {x, 25x} or {5x, 5x}.
Possible factors of 4 are {1, 4} or {2, 2}.
We need to methodically try each pair of factors until we find
a combination that works, or exhaust all of our possible pairs
of factors.
Keep in mind that, because some of our pairs are not identical
factors, we may have to exchange some pairs of factors and
make 2 attempts before we can definitely decide a particular
pair of factors will not work. Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
We will be looking for a combination that gives the sum of the
products of the outside terms and the inside terms equal to 20x.
Factors Factors Resulting Product of Product of Sum of
of 25x2 of 4 Binomials Outside Terms Inside Terms Products

{x, 25x} {1, 4} (x + 1)(25x + 4) 4x 25x 29x

(x + 4)(25x + 1) x 100x 101x
{x, 25x} {2, 2} (x + 2)(25x + 2) 2x 50x 52x
{5x, 5x} {2, 2} (5x + 2)(5x + 2) 10x 10x 20x
Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Check the resulting factorization using the FOIL method.
F O I L
(5x + 2)(5x + 2) = 5x(5x) + 5x(2) + 2(5x) + 2(2)
= 25x2 + 10x + 10x + 4
= 25x2 + 20x + 4

So our final answer when asked to factor 25x2 + 20x + 4

will be (5x + 2)(5x + 2) or (5x + 2)2.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 21x2 – 41x + 10.
Possible factors of 21x2 are {x, 21x} or {3x, 7x}.
Since the middle term is negative, possible factors of
10 must both be negative: {-1, -10} or {-2, -5}.

We need to methodically try each pair of factors until

we find a combination that works, or exhaust all of our
possible pairs of factors.
Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
We will be looking for a combination that gives the sum of
the products of the outside terms and the inside terms equal
to 41x.
Factors Factors Resulting Product of Product of Sum of
of 21x2 of 10 Binomials Outside Terms Inside Terms Products
{x, 21x}{1, 10}(x – 1)(21x – 10) –10x 21x – 31x
(x – 10)(21x – 1) –x 210x – 211x
{x, 21x} {2, 5} (x – 2)(21x – 5) –5x 42x – 47x
(x – 5)(21x – 2) –2x 105x – 107x
Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Factors Factors Resulting Product of Product of Sum of
of 21x2 of 10 Binomials Outside Terms Inside Terms Products

{3x, 7x}{1, 10}(3x – 1)(7x – 10) 30x 7x 37x

(3x – 10)(7x – 1) 3x 70x 73x
{3x, 7x} {2, 5} (3x – 2)(7x – 5) 15x 14x 29x

(3x – 5)(7x – 2) 6x 35x 41x

Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Check the resulting factorization using the FOIL method.
F O I L
(3x – 5)(7x – 2) = 3x(7x) + 3x(-2) - 5(7x) - 5(-2)
= 21x2 – 6x – 35x + 10
= 21x2 – 41x + 10

So our final answer when asked to factor 21x2 – 41x + 10

will be (3x – 5)(7x – 2).
 Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 3x2 – 7x + 6.

The only possible factors for 3 are 1 and 3, so we know that, if

factorable, the polynomial will have to look like (3x )(x )
in factored form, so that the product of the first two terms in the
binomials will be 3x2.

Since the middle term is negative, possible factors of 6 must

both be negative: {1,  6} or { 2,  3}.
We need to methodically try each pair of factors until we find a
combination that works, or exhaust all of our possible pairs of
factors. Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
We will be looking for a combination that gives the sum of the
products of the outside terms and the inside terms equal to 7x.
Factors Resulting Product of Product of Sum of
of 6 Binomials Outside Terms Inside Terms Products

{1, 6} (3x – 1)(x – 6) 18x x 19x

(3x – 6)(x – 1) Common factor so no need to test.
{2, 3} (3x – 2)(x – 3) 9x 2x 11x
(3x – 3)(x – 2) Common factor so no need to test.
Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued

Now we have a problem, because we have

exhausted all possible choices for the factors,
but have not found a pair where the sum of the
products of the outside terms and the inside
terms is –7.
So 3x2 – 7x + 6 is a prime polynomial and will
not factor.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 6x2y2 – 2xy2 – 60y2.

Remember that the larger the coefficient, the greater the

probability of having multiple pairs of factors to check.
So it is important that you attempt to factor out any
common factors first.
6x2y2 – 2xy2 – 60y2 = 2y2(3x2 – x – 30)
The only possible factors for 3 are 1 and 3, so we know
that, if we can factor the polynomial further, it will have to
look like 2y2(3x )(x ) in factored form. Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Since the product of the last two terms of the binomials
will have to be –30, we know that they must be
different signs.
Possible factors of –30 are {–1, 30}, {1, –30}, {–2, 15},
{2, –15}, {–3, 10}, {3, –10}, {–5, 6} or {5, –6}.

We will be looking for a combination that gives the sum

of the products of the outside terms and the inside terms
equal to –x.
Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Factors Resulting Product of Product of Sum of
of -30 Binomials Outside Terms Inside Terms Products
{-1, 30} (3x – 1)(x + 30) 90x -x 89x
(3x + 30)(x – 1) Common factor so no need to test.
{1, -30} (3x + 1)(x – 30) -90x x -89x
(3x – 30)(x + 1) Common factor so no need to test.
{-2, 15} (3x – 2)(x + 15) 45x -2x 43x
(3x + 15)(x – 2) Common factor so no need to test.
{2, -15} (3x + 2)(x – 15) -45x 2x -43x
(3x – 15)(x + 2) Common factor so no need to test.
Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Factors Resulting Product of Product of Sum of
of –30 Binomials Outside Terms Inside Terms Products
{–3, 10} (3x – 3)(x + 10) Common factor so no need to test.
(3x + 10)(x – 3) –9x 10x x
{3, –10} (3x + 3)(x – 10) Common factor so no need to test.

(3x – 10)(x + 3) 9x –10x –x

Continued.
 Factoring Polynomials
Example Continued
Check the resulting factorization using the FOIL method.
F O I L
(3x – 10)(x + 3) = 3x(x) + 3x(3) – 10(x) – 10(3)
= 3x2 + 9x – 10x – 30
= 3x2 – x – 30
So our final answer when asked to factor the polynomial
6x2y2 – 2xy2 – 60y2 will be 2y2(3x – 10)(x + 3).
 §
13.4

Factoring Trinomials of the Form x2 + bx + c

by Grouping
 Factoring by Grouping
Factoring polynomials often involves additional
techniques after initially factoring out the GCF.
One technique is factoring by grouping.
Example
Factor xy + y + 2x + 2 by grouping.
Notice that, although 1 is the GCF for all four
terms of the polynomial, the first 2 terms have a
GCF of y and the last 2 terms have a GCF of 2.
xy + y + 2x + 2 = x · y + 1 · y + 2 · x + 2 · 1 =
y(x + 1) + 2(x + 1) = (x + 1)(y + 2)
 Factoring by Grouping
Factoring a Four-Term Polynomial by Grouping
1) Arrange the terms so that the first two terms have a
common factor and the last two terms have a common
factor.
2) For each pair of terms, use the distributive property to
factor out the pair’s greatest common factor.
3) If there is now a common binomial factor, factor it out.
4) If there is no common binomial factor in step 3, begin
again, rearranging the terms differently.
• If no rearrangement leads to a common binomial
factor, the polynomial cannot be factored.
 Factoring by Grouping
Example
Factor each of the following polynomials by grouping.
1) x3 + 4x + x2 + 4 = x · x2 + x · 4 + 1 · x2 + 1 · 4 =
x(x2 + 4) + 1(x2 + 4) =
(x2 + 4)(x + 1)
2) 2x3 – x2 – 10x + 5 = x2 · 2x – x2 · 1 – 5 · 2x – 5 · (– 1) =
x2(2x – 1) – 5(2x – 1) =
(2x – 1)(x2 – 5)
 Factoring by Grouping
Example
Factor 2x – 9y + 18 – xy by grouping.
Neither pair has a common factor (other than 1).
So, rearrange the order of the factors.
2x + 18 – 9y – xy = 2 · x + 2 · 9 – 9 · y – x · y =
2(x + 9) – y(9 + x) =
2(x + 9) – y(x + 9) = (make sure the factors are identical)
(x + 9)(2 – y)
§
13.5

Factoring Perfect Square Trinomials and the

Difference of Two Squares
 Perfect Square Trinomials

Recall that in our very first example in Section

4.3 we attempted to factor the polynomial
25x2 + 20x + 4.
The result was (5x + 2)2, an example of a
binomial squared.
Any trinomial that factors into a single
binomial squared is called a perfect square
trinomial.
 Perfect Square Trinomials
In the last chapter we learned a shortcut for squaring a
binomial
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2
So if the first and last terms of our polynomial to be
factored are can be written as expressions squared,
and the middle term of our polynomial is twice the
product of those two expressions, then we can use
these two previous equations to easily factor the
polynomial.
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2
 Perfect Square Trinomials
Example
Factor the polynomial 16x2 – 8xy + y2.
Since the first term, 16x2, can be written as (4x)2, and
the last term, y2 is obviously a square, we check the
middle term.
8xy = 2(4x)(y) (twice the product of the expressions
that are squared to get the first and last terms of the
polynomial)
Therefore 16x2 – 8xy + y2 = (4x – y)2.
Note: You can use FOIL method to verify that the
factorization for the polynomial is accurate.
Difference of Two Squares

Another shortcut for factoring a trinomial is when we

want to factor the difference of two squares.
a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)
A binomial is the difference of two square if
1.both terms are squares and
2.the signs of the terms are different.

9x2 – 25y2
– c4 + d4
Difference of Two Squares
Example
Factor the polynomial x2 – 9.
The first term is a square and the last term, 9, can be
written as 32. The signs of each term are different, so
we have the difference of two squares
Therefore x2 – 9 = (x – 3)(x + 3).
Note: You can use FOIL method to verify that the
factorization for the polynomial is accurate.
§
13.6

Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring

Zero Factor Theorem

Quadratic Equations
• Can be written in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
• a, b and c are real numbers and a  0.
• This is referred to as standard form.
Zero Factor Theorem
• If a and b are real numbers and ab = 0, then a = 0 or b =
0.
• This theorem is very useful in solving quadratic
equations.
Solving Quadratic Equations
Steps for Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factoring
1) Write the equation in standard form.
2) Factor the quadratic completely.
3) Set each factor containing a variable equal to 0.
4) Solve the resulting equations.
5) Check each solution in the original equation.
Solving Quadratic Equations

Example
Solve x2 – 5x = 24.
• First write the quadratic equation in standard form.
x2 – 5x – 24 = 0
• Now we factor the quadratic using techniques from the
previous sections.
x2 – 5x – 24 = (x – 8)(x + 3) = 0
• We set each factor equal to 0.
x – 8 = 0 or x + 3 = 0, which will simplify to
x = 8 or x = – 3

Continued.
Solving Quadratic Equations

Example Continued
• Check both possible answers in the original equation.
82 – 5(8) = 64 – 40 = 24 true
(–3)2 – 5(–3) = 9 – (–15) = 24 true
• So our solutions for x are 8 or –3.
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Example
Solve 4x(8x + 9) = 5
• First write the quadratic equation in standard form.
32x2 + 36x = 5
32x2 + 36x – 5 = 0
• Now we factor the quadratic using techniques from the
previous sections.
32x2 + 36x – 5 = (8x – 1)(4x + 5) = 0
• We set each factor equal to 0.
8x – 1 = 0 or 4x + 5 = 0
1 5
8x = 1 or 4x = – 5, which simplifies to x =
8 or .
4
Continued.
 Solving Quadratic Equations

Example Continued
• Check both possible answers in the original equation.

4      
1
8
8
1
8
 9 4
1
8
1
 1
1  9  4 8 (10)  2 (10) 5
true
      
4 
5
4
5 5 5
 
8   9 4   10  9  4  ( 1) ( 5)( 1) 5
4 4 4
true
1 5
• So our solutions for x are or  .
8 4
Finding x-intercepts

Recall that in Chapter 3, we found the x-intercept of

linear equations by letting y = 0 and solving for x.
The same method works for x-intercepts in quadratic
equations.
Note: When the quadratic equation is written in
standard form, the graph is a parabola opening up (when
a > 0) or down (when a < 0), where a is the coefficient of
the x2 term.
The intercepts will be where the parabola crosses the
x-axis.
 Finding x-intercepts

Example
Find the x-intercepts of the graph of y = 4x2 + 11x + 6.
The equation is already written in standard form, so we let y
= 0, then factor the quadratic in x.
0 = 4x2 + 11x + 6 = (4x + 3)(x + 2)
We set each factor equal to 0 and solve for x.
4x + 3 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
4x = –3 or x = –2
x = –¾ or x = –2
So the x-intercepts are the points (–¾, 0) and (–2, 0).
§
13.7

Quadratic Equations and Problem Solving

Strategy for Problem Solving

General Strategy for Problem Solving

1) Understand the problem
• Read and reread the problem
• Choose a variable to represent the unknown
• Construct a drawing, whenever possible
• Propose a solution and check
2) Translate the problem into an equation
3) Solve the equation
4) Interpret the result
• Check proposed solution in problem
• State your conclusion
 Finding an Unknown Number
Example
The product of two consecutive positive integers is 132. Find the
two integers.
1.) Understand
Read and reread the problem. If we let
x = one of the unknown positive integers, then
x + 1 = the next consecutive positive integer.

Continued
 Finding an Unknown Number
Example continued
2.) Translate

The product of
is 132
two consecutive positive integers

x • (x + 1) = 132

Continued
 Finding an Unknown Number
Example continued
3.) Solve
x(x + 1) = 132
x2 + x = 132 (Distributive property)
x2 + x – 132 = 0 (Write quadratic in standard form)
(x + 12)(x – 11) = 0 (Factor quadratic polynomial)
x + 12 = 0 or x – 11 = 0 (Set factors equal to 0)
x = –12 or x = 11 (Solve each factor for x)
Continued
 Finding an Unknown Number
Example continued
4.) Interpret
Check: Remember that x is suppose to represent a positive
integer. So, although x = -12 satisfies our equation, it cannot be a
solution for the problem we were presented.
If we let x = 11, then x + 1 = 12. The product of the two numbers
is 11 · 12 = 132, our desired result.
State: The two positive integers are 11 and 12.
 The Pythagorean Theorem
Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the sum of the squares of the
lengths of the two legs is equal to the square of
the length of the hypotenuse.
(leg a)2 + (leg b)2 = (hypotenuse)2

hypotenuse
leg a

leg b
 The Pythagorean Theorem
Example
Find the length of the shorter leg of a right triangle if the longer leg
is 10 miles more than the shorter leg and the hypotenuse is 10 miles
less than twice the shorter leg.
1.) Understand
Read and reread the problem. If we let 2 x - 10
x = the length of the shorter leg, then x
x + 10 = the length of the longer leg and
x + 10
2x – 10 = the length of the hypotenuse.

Continued
 The Pythagorean Theorem
Example continued
2.) Translate
By the Pythagorean Theorem,
(leg a)2 + (leg b)2 = (hypotenuse)2
x2 + (x + 10)2 = (2x – 10)2
3.) Solve
x2 + (x + 10)2 = (2x – 10)2
x2 + x2 + 20x + 100 = 4x2 – 40x + 100 (multiply the binomials)
2x2 + 20x + 100 = 4x2 – 40x + 100 (simplify left side)
0 = 2x2 – 60x (subtract 2x2 + 20x + 100 from both sides)
0 = 2x(x – 30) (factor right side)
x = 0 or x = 30 (set each factor = 0 and solve) Continued
 The Pythagorean Theorem
Example continued
4.) Interpret
Check: Remember that x is suppose to represent the length of
the shorter side. So, although x = 0 satisfies our equation, it
cannot be a solution for the problem we were presented.
If we let x = 30, then x + 10 = 40 and 2x – 10 = 50. Since 302 +
402 = 900 + 1600 = 2500 = 502, the Pythagorean Theorem
checks out.
State: The length of the shorter leg is 30 miles. (Remember that
is all we were asked for in this problem.)