Chapter 1

Boolean Algebra and

Digital Logic
 Objectives

• Understand the relationship between Boolean logic

and digital computer circuits.
• Learn how to design simple logic circuits.
• Understand how digital circuits work together to
form complex computer systems.

2
 Introduction

• In the latter part of the nineteenth century, George

Boole incensed philosophers and mathematicians,
he suggested that logical thought could be
represented through mathematical equations .
– How dare anyone suggest that human thought could be
encapsulated and manipulated like an algebraic formula?
• Computers, as we know them today, are
implementations of Boole’s Laws of Thought.

3
 Introduction

• In the middle of the twentieth century, computers

were commonly known as “thinking machines” and
“electronic brains.”
– Many people were fearful of them.
• Nowadays, we rarely ponder the relationship
between electronic digital computers and human
logic. Computers are accepted as part of our lives.
– Many people, however, are still fearful of them.
• In this chapter, you will learn the simplicity that
constitutes the essence of the machine.

4
 Boolean Algebra

• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for

the manipulation of variables that can have
one of two values.
– In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
– In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,”
1 and 0, or “high” and “low.”
• Boolean expressions are created by
performing operations on Boolean variables.
– Common Boolean operators include AND, OR,
and NOT.

5
 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean operator can be

completely described using a
truth table.
• The truth table for the Boolean
operators AND and OR are
shown at the right.
• The AND operator is also known
as a Boolean product. The OR
operator is the Boolean sum.

6
 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean NOT operator is
shown at the right.
• The NOT operation is
most often designated by
an overbar. It is
sometimes indicated by a
prime mark ( ‘ ) or an
“elbow” ().

7
 3.2 Boolean Algebra

• A Boolean function has:

• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}.
• It produces an output that is also a member of
the set {0,1}.

Now you know why the binary numbering

system is so handy in digital systems.

8
 Boolean Algebra

• The truth table for the

Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

• To make evaluation of the
Boolean function easier,
the truth table contains
extra (shaded) columns to
hold evaluations of
subparts of the function.
9
 Boolean Algebra

• As with common
arithmetic, Boolean
operations have rules of
precedence.
• The NOT operator has
highest priority, followed
by AND and then OR.
• This is how we chose the
(shaded) function
subparts in our table.

10
 Boolean Algebra

• Digital computers contain circuits that implement

Boolean functions.
• The simpler that we can make a Boolean function,
the smaller the circuit that will result.
– Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less
power, and run faster than complex circuits.
• With this in mind, we always want to reduce our
Boolean functions to their simplest form.
• There are a number of Boolean identities that help
us to do this.

11
 Boolean Algebra

• Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form

as well as an OR (sum) form. We give our identities
using both forms. Our first group is rather intuitive:

12
 Boolean Algebra

• Our second group of Boolean identities should be

familiar to you from your study of algebra:

13
 Boolean Algebra

• Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the

most useful.
• If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these
laws are also familiar to you.

14
 Boolean Algebra

• We can use Boolean identities to simplify the

function: F(X,Y)=
as follows:

15
 Boolean Algebra

• Sometimes it is more economical to build a

circuit using the complement of a function (and
complementing its result) than it is to implement
the function directly.
• DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding
the complement of a Boolean function.
• Recall DeMorgan’s law states:

16
 Boolean Algebra

• DeMorgan’s law can be extended to any number of

variables.
• Replace each variable by its complement and
change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs.
• Thus, we find the the complement of:

is:

17
 1.2 Logic Gates

• We have looked at Boolean functions in abstract

terms.
• In this section, we see that Boolean functions are
implemented in digital computer circuits called gates.
• A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
– In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but digital
designers think of them as a single unit.
– Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a
particular purpose.

18
 Logic Gates

• The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.

• They correspond directly to their respective Boolean

operations, as you can see by their truth tables.
19
 Logic Gates

• Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR

(XOR) gate.
• The output of the XOR operation is true only when
the values of the inputs differ.

Note the special symbol 

for the XOR operation.

20
 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR

are two very
important gates.
Their symbols and
truth tables are
shown at the right.

21
 Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR

are known as
universal gates
because they are
inexpensive to
manufacture and
any Boolean
function can be
constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.

22
 Logic Gates

• Gates can have multiple inputs and more than

one output.
– A second output can be provided for the complement
of the operation.

23
 Digital Components

• The main thing to remember is that combinations of

gates implement Boolean functions.
• The circuit below implements the Boolean function:

We simplify our Boolean expressions so

that we can create simpler circuits.
24
 Combinational Circuits

• We have designed a circuit that implements the

Boolean function:

• This circuit is an example of a combinational logic

circuit.
• Combinational logic circuits produce a specified
output (almost) at the instant when input values
are applied.

25
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• Combinational logic circuits

give us many useful devices.
• One of the simplest is the
half adder, which finds the
sum of two bits.
• We can gain some insight as
to the construction of a half
adder by looking at its truth
table, shown at the right.

26
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• As we see, the sum can be

found using the XOR
operation and the carry
using the AND operation.

27
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• We can change our half

adder into to a full adder
by including gates for
processing the carry bit.
• The truth table for a full
adder is shown at the
right.

28
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• How can we change the

half adder shown below
to make it a full adder?

29
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• Here’s our completed full adder.

30
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• Just as we combined half adders to make a full

adder, full adders can connected in series.
• The carry bit “ripples” from one adder to the next;
hence, this configuration is called a ripple-carry
adder.

Today’s systems employ more efficient adders.

31
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• Decoders are another important type of

combinational circuit.
• Among other things, they are useful in selecting a
memory location according a binary value placed
on the address lines of a memory bus.
• Address decoders with n inputs can select any of 2n
locations.
This is a block
diagram for a
decoder.

32
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• This is what a 2-to-4 decoder looks like on the

inside.

If x = 0 and y = 1,
which output line
is enabled?

33
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• A multiplexer does just the

opposite of a decoder.
• It selects a single output
from several inputs.
• The particular input chosen
for output is determined by
the value of the multiplexer’s
control lines.
• To be able to select among n This is a block
diagram for a
inputs, log2n control lines are multiplexer.
needed.
34
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• This is what a 4-to-1 multiplexer looks like on the

inside.

If S0 = 1 and S1 = 0,
which input is
transferred to the
output?

35
 3.5 Combinational Circuits

• This shifter
moves the
bits of a
nibble one
position to the
left or right.

If S = 0, in which
direction do the
input bits shift?
36
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• Combinational logic circuits are perfect for

situations when we require the immediate
application of a Boolean function to a set of inputs.
• There are other times, however, when we need a
circuit to change its value with consideration to its
current state as well as its inputs.
– These circuits have to “remember” their current state.
• Sequential logic circuits provide this functionality
for us.

37
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• As the name implies, sequential logic circuits require

a means by which events can be sequenced.
• State changes are controlled by clocks.
– A “clock” is a special circuit that sends electrical pulses
through a circuit.
• Clocks produce electrical waveforms such as the
one shown below.

38
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• State changes occur in sequential circuits only

when the clock ticks.
• Circuits can change state on the rising edge,
falling edge, or when the clock pulse reaches its
highest voltage.

39
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• Circuits that change state on the rising edge, or

falling edge of the clock pulse are called edge-
triggered.
• Level-triggered circuits change state when the
clock voltage reaches its highest or lowest level.

40
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• To retain their state values, sequential circuits

rely on feedback.
• Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an output
is looped back to the input.
• A simple example of this concept is shown below.
– If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will always be 1.
Why?

41
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• You can see how feedback works by examining

the most basic sequential logic components, the
SR flip-flop.
– The “SR” stands for set/reset.
• The internals of an SR flip-flop are shown below,
along with its block diagram.

42
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• The behavior of an SR latch/flip-flop is

described by a characteristic table.
• Q(t) means the value of the output at time t.
Q(t+1) is the value of Q after the next clock
pulse.

43
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• The SR flip-flop actually

has three inputs: S, R,
and its current output, Q.
• Thus, we can construct
a truth table for this
circuit, as shown at the
right.
• Notice the two undefined
values. When both S
and R are 1, the SR flip-
flop is unstable.
44
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• If we can be sure that the inputs to an SR flip-flop

will never both be 1, we will never have an
unstable circuit. This may not always be the case.
• The SR flip-flop can be modified to provide a
stable state when both inputs are 1.
• This modified flip-flop is
called a JK flip-flop,
shown at the right.
- The “JK” is in honor of
Jack Kilby.

45
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• At the right, we see

how an SR flip-flop
can be modified to
create a JK flip-flop.
• The characteristic
table indicates that
the flip-flop is stable
for all inputs.

46
 JK flipflop with NAND gate

JK flipflop with NOR gate

47
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• Another modification of the SR flip-flop is the D

flip-flop, shown below with its characteristic table.
• You will notice that the output of the flip-flop
remains the same during subsequent clock
pulses. The output changes only when the value
of D changes.

48
Master slave D flip flop

49
 3.6 Sequential Circuits

• The D flip-flop is the fundamental circuit of

computer memory.
– D flip-flops are usually illustrated using the block
diagram shown below.
• The characteristic table for the D flip-flop is
shown at the right.

50
 3.7 Designing Circuits

• We have seen digital circuits from two points of

view: digital analysis and digital synthesis.
– Digital analysis explores the relationship between a
circuits inputs and its outputs.
– Digital synthesis creates logic diagrams using the values
specified in a truth table.
• Digital systems designers must also be mindful of
the physical behaviors of circuits to include minute
propagation delays that occur between the time
when a circuit’s inputs are energized and when the
output is accurate and stable.
51
 3.7 Designing Circuits

• Digital designers rely on specialized software to

create efficient circuits.
– Thus, software is an enabler for the construction of
better hardware.
• Of course, software is in reality a collection of
algorithms that could just as well be
implemented in hardware.
– Recall the Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and
Software.

52
End of Chapter 3

53