KEY ASPECTS OF

QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
 Objectives
• Describe qualitative design features

• Describe the main features and methods associated with ethnographic,

phenomenologic, and grounded theory studies

• Describe the logic of sampling for qualitative studies & identify and describe several
types of sampling in qualitative studies

• Evaluate the appropriateness of the sampling method and sample size used in a
qualitative study.

• Discuss the procedures used to analyze qualitative data

• Assess the adequacy of researchers’ descriptions of their sampling, data collection and
analysis procedures
 “Not everything that can be counted counts,
and not everything that counts can be counted”

(Albert Einstein)
 What is qualitative research?

Collects qualitative data, that

is, narrative descriptions.
What is the goal of qualitative research?
Qualitative research emphasizes and acknowledges that
multiple realities exist.
Qualitative research emphasizes and acknowledges that
reality is context-dependent.
Qualitative research employes inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning in qualitative research involves

generating theories or patterns based on the analysis of
specific observations and data. Researchers collect
detailed data through methods like interviews or
observations and then identify themes, patterns, and
relationships within that data. This approach moves from
the specific to the general, allowing researchers to build
broader insights and theories grounded in the actual
data.
 Qualitative
research lets us
see the world
through the
eyes of
participants
Telling a Complete Story with Qualitative and
Mixed Methods Research - Dr. John W. Creswell

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l5e7kVzMIfs
Self-reflection: According to the video,
1. How do you think qualitative research has enhanced our
understanding of the life experiences of Holocaust survivors?

2. What is motivating researchers to conduct more qualitative

research?

3. Which research methodology does Dr. John W. Creswell

recommend?
 Why is qualitative research needed?
• Enables deeper understanding of experiences, phenomena, and
context.

• Embraces the wholeness of humans.

• Allows the researcher to ask questions that cannot be easily put

into numbers to understand human experience.
 Reflexivity
• In qualitative research, researchers often use reflexivity as a way to
enhance methodological rigor.

• Reflexivity: The researcher reflects on their personal biases and

understands how they might influence the research.

• Bracketing: The researcher deliberately sets aside personal biases—”

bracket them”— (used in one type of qualitative research: Descriptive
phenomenological research)
 Transferability

In qualitative research, findings are often context- or

situation-specific.

Transferability : The extent to which the findings from

one qualitative study can be applied or transferred to
other contexts or settings.
 SAMPLING IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 Sampling
A portion or subset of the designated population

Population

Sample
Sampling in qualitative research
• Aims to recruit people who can provide rich information.
• Types:

1. Convenience
2. Network
3. Purposive
4. Theoretical
 1. Convenience sampling
• Using most readily accessible persons as participants
• Volunteer participants are often recruited

Advantages:
• Economical
• Easy

Disadvantages:
• May not provide the most information-rich sources.
• Risk: Sampling bias, self-selection bias
 2. Network (or snowball) sampling
• Simply ask participants if they know anyone like themselves.
• The sample grows like a snowball rolling down a hill.

Advantages:
• Useful to find rare individuals

Disadvantages:
• The final sample might be restricted to a small group of acquaintances
3. Purposive Sampling
• Deliberately selecting the cases that will best contribute to the study
(cases typical of the population).

Advantage: Information-rich cases

Disadvantage: May require a lot of background information about the
topic
 4. Theoretical Sampling
• Used in grounded theory research
• Data are gathered from any individual or group that can provide
relevant data.

Advantages: Strengthens the rigor of the study

Disadvantages: Requires more time and resources
 Review question
Which of the following sampling strategies has the greatest risk for
sample bias?

a. Purposive
b. Convenience
c. Theoretical
d. Snowball

Correct answer: B
 Sample size in qualitative research

• No predetermined sample size

• Samples tend to be fairly small
• Often depends on data saturation…

Data saturation in qualitative research refers to the point at which no new

information or themes are emerging from the data collection process. It indicates
that the researcher has gathered enough data to fully understand the phenomenon
under study. When saturation is reached, additional data collection is unlikely to
provide new insights or contribute to the development of further themes, allowing
the researcher to conclude the data collection phase.
 DATA COLLECTION IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 Qualitative Data Collection
• In-depth Interviews (MOST common)
• Focus groups (MOST common)
• Observation
• Photovoice
• Document review
 Qualitative Data Collection
Data are usually collected in a
“naturalistic setting”
A naturalistic setting in qualitative research refers to a real-world
environment where the phenomena of interest occur naturally, without any
manipulation or control by the researcher. In this type of setting, researchers
observe and collect data in the participants' everyday contexts, such as their
homes, workplaces, or communities. The goal is to understand behaviors,
experiences, and interactions as they happen organically, providing a more
authentic and holistic view of the subject being studied.
 In-depth Interviews

• One-on-one
• Open-ended format and probing techniques
• Semi-structured
• Field notes (non-verbal cues)
• 45-90 minutes
• Avoid leading questions
• Establishing a trusting environment
• Interviews audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim
 Focus Groups
• Researcher as moderator
• 1-2 hours
• Interaction between participants is
encouraged.
• Sessions audio-recorded and transcribed
verbatim.
• Confidentiality concerns: Concerns in focus
groups arise because participants share
information in a group setting, making it
challenging to ensure that all members will
keep the discussions private. Researchers must
emphasize the importance of confidentiality.
Deciding between one-on-one interviews and focus groups: What are the
key considerations?“

One-on-one interviews provide a private setting where participants

might feel more comfortable sharing sensitive or detailed information,
allowing for in-depth exploration of individual perspectives. On the other
hand, focus groups facilitate dynamic discussions, capturing a range of
views and interactions that can stimulate new insights.
 Observation
Possible “ethical challenges”
• Ensuring that participants are aware of and consent to being observed can be complicated, especially in
public or sensitive settings.
• Respecting participants' privacy and maintaining confidentiality are crucial ethical considerations.
Overt versus Covert Observation:
• Overt Observation: Participants are aware that they are being observed.
• Advantages: More ethical as it involves informed consent; participants can provide additional context to
their actions.
• Disadvantages: May lead to altered behavior as participants might change their behavior because they
know they are being watched.
• Covert Observation: Participants are not aware that they are being observed.
• Advantages: Can provide more natural and genuine data since participants behave as they normally would.
• Disadvantages: Raises significant ethical issues as it involves deception and lack of informed consent,
potentially violating participants' rights to privacy.
 Photovoice

Photovoice research is a participatory method in which individuals use photography to capture their
experiences, perspectives, and issues in their communities. Participants take photos that represent their
views and then discuss these images in group settings, often facilitated by researchers. This method
empowers participants to share their stories and insights visually and verbally, providing a rich,
multifaceted understanding of the topic under study. Photovoice research is particularly effective for
exploring the voices of marginalized or underrepresented groups.
 Document review

Document review in qualitative research involves analyzing existing documents to gather data and
insights relevant to the research question. These documents can include written texts (such as reports,
letters, policy documents, diaries, and newspapers), visual materials (such as photographs and videos),
and digital content. Researchers examine these materials to understand the context, identify patterns,
and uncover themes that contribute to a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Document
review is a valuable method for triangulating data, gaining richer insights into the phenomena being
studied.
 DATA ANALYSIS IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Researchers identify themes, which are used to build a rich

description of the phenomenon.
Data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously and iteratively
(process is cyclical and iterative, not sequential)
• Transcribe
• Read
• Code
• Themes or categories*
• Interpretation

*While not all qualitative methods are concerned with identifying themes, thematic analysis is common across
several qualitative approaches.
 Data transcription
• captures verbatim what was said, including
pauses, laughter, or other significant non-
verbal cues.
Read and Reread

• Become familiar with data

• Read and until an understanding is reached
about what the data convey.
 Data Coding/Themes
• Codes are simply tags or labels that are assigned to the
themes.
• Major codes may exist along with subcodes.
• Codes evolve during the analysis; more may be added, and
others may be blended.
• The data is then be organized into meaningful clusters of
data by grouping related or similar data.
 EXAMPLE: Cancer survivors’ perceptions of yoga (Baydoun et al., 2019)
themes Subcodes (subthemes)
Perceived benefits of yoga Improved stress/calmness
Increased body awareness and understanding
Improved sleep
Improved body flexibility/range of motion
Improved breathing
Reduced pain
Increased muscular strength
Increased energy
Lowered blood pressure

Barriers and hurdles to practicing General time constraints

yoga Long travel distance to the yoga class
Distractions and interruptions during home practice
Difficult poses
Fears and concerns about yoga Fear of fall/injury
Fear of contracting communicable infections during yoga classes
Data Coding/Themes
• Coding by hand.
• Coding through a computer software
(e.g., NVIVO).
• Software cannot “think for the
researcher”.
• Data analysis and interpretation remain
largely the task of the researcher.
 Interpretation
• The researcher offers their
interpretation of what is going on.
• May focus on usefulness of findings
for clinical practice
• Watch this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=1OGhiXIKX-o
• In qualitative research, which of the following is not considered a naturalistic
setting?

• a. the researcher’s office.

• b. health care settings.
• c. communities
• d. homes, schools

Correct answer: A
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Three major traditions:
1. Phenomenology
2. Ethnography
3. Grounded Theory

OTHER TYPES: NARRATIVE,HISTORICAL, CASE STUDY, CRITICAL

THEORY, FEMINIST, PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH
 PHENOMENOLOGY
 Understanding people’s everyday life experiences.
Phenomenology: Two distinct approaches
ACTIVITY 1: Find this research study article in the “Qualitative Research
Articles" folder on your course page. Read the research article and try to answer
the following questions.

1. What was the goal of the study?

2. What was the qualitative approach? Is it congruent with the research goal?

3. What was the sampling approach and sample size? Were they appropriate?

4. How was data collected? Is the data collection method congruent with the research methodology?

5. Was there evidence of reflexivity/bracketing?

6. How was data analyzed? Was the analysis method appropriate?

7. What are the main findings?

8. What are the implications for nursing practice?

 ETHNOGRAPHY
Description and interpretation of a culture and cultural behavior.

Culture in terms of…

 Ethnography
• Inspired by anthropology

Seeks to understand:
1. Cultural behaviour (what members of the culture do),
2. Cultural artefacts (what members make and use),
3. Cultural speech (what they say).
 Ethnography

• The researcher immerses in a particular community or organization

to “observe” individuals.
• Data sources: field notes, observations, interviews, records,
photographs, diaries, etc.
• Analyze patterns in the behavior and thoughts
 Ethnographic setting
• Conducted in the field; researchers often “live” among
the participants.

• Requires intensive face-to-face contact

• Macro ethnography versus focused ethnography.

• Critical ethnography (social justice)

ACTIVITY 2: Find this research study article in the " Qualitative Research
Articles" folder on your course page. Read the research article and try to answer
the following questions.

1. What was the goal of the study?

2. What was the qualitative approach? Is it congruent with the research goal?
3. What was the sampling approach and sample size? Were they appropriate?
4. How was data collected? Is the data collection method congruent with the research methodology?
5. How were data analyzed? Was the analysis method appropriate?
6. What are the main findings?
7. What are the implications for nursing practice?
 GROUNDED THEORY
 Used to generate conceptual categories and integrate
them into a substantive theory.
 Grounded Theory
• A systematic set of procedures to arrive at a theory about basic
social processes
• Useful where no theory exists
• Seeks to identify a main concern or problem—the core category.
• Results: theory “grounded” in the data
• Theoretical sampling
 Grounded Theory:
Constant Comparison Analysis
• As new data are collected, they are compared with the emerging
theory.
• Done during collection and analysis in cyclical pattern, along with
theoretical sampling.
• Open coding (what is going on in the data?)
• Selective coding (code data related to core category)
 Grounded Theory Methods
• Glaser and Strauss’s (1967):
. problem.
Does not begin with a focused research
Constant comparison is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant
concepts and categories.

• Strauss and Corbin (1990):

 Full conceptual description.
 Generates concepts and theories that account for variation in social behaviors

• Charmaz (2014): Constructivist grounded theory

 Data and analyses are viewed as social constructions (constructed from shared
experiences between the researcher and the participants).
ACTIVITY 3: Find this research study article in the "Qualitative Research
Articles" folder on your course page. Read the research article and try to answer
the following questions.

1. What was the goal of the study?

2. What was the qualitative approach? Is it congruent with the research goal?
3. What was the sampling approach and sample size? Were they appropriate?
4. How were data collected? Is the data collection method congruent with the research methodology?
5. How were data analyzed? Was the analysis method appropriate?
6. What are the main findings?
7. What are the implications for nursing practice?
Examples of Qualitative Research Questions Studies

og y
e nol
m
Ph eno

p h y
ra
h n og
Et

ory
d T he
u n de
Gro
 NARRATIVE INQUIRY
 People experience life as a story and story their lives
 Researcher analyzes “stories” of participants
 HISTORIC RESEARCH
 Collection and critical evaluation of data relating to past occurrences
 CASE STUDY
 Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single entity or small
number of entities
 CRITICAL THEORY
 * Concerned with contradictions and disparities in social practices

.
* Critical ethnography focuses on raising consciousness in the hope of affecting
social change
 FEMINIST RESEARCH
 Concerned with gender domination and discrimination
 PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR)
PAR involves members of a study population as active and equal participants and
pursue action (or change)


 Descriptive Qualitative
• Some qualitative studies do not use a particular methodology or do not fit
into the types previously presented.

• Sometimes called descriptive qualitative

Thank you
References
Woo, Kevin. Polit & Beck Canadian Essentials of Nursing Research (4 th Edition).
Wolters Kluwer Health.