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Sets and Functions

LECTURE

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Charyann Gumarang
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5 views

Sets and Functions

LECTURE

Uploaded by

Charyann Gumarang
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Sets and Functions

Mathematical
Backgrounds of KR
Let’s make a list

1. Pull out a piece of paper


2. Make a list of everything in this room right
now
3. Now make a list of those things from step 2
that could be easily moved out
4. Now make a list of those things from step 2
that are alive
What did we do?

 Created a domain
 Created mappings from the domain
– Mobile(x)
– Alive(x)

 What ways could we implement these


mappings?
Basic Sets

 An arbitrary collection of elements


– Numbers, points, etc.
– Also, chairs, people, pets, geological formations,
etc.
Basic Sets Notation

 Curly braces
– e.g. {1, 97, 63, 12}
 Order is not considered
– e.g. {12, 63, 97, 1} is equivalent to the previous
What about very large sets?

 Specification must state some rule or


property
– {x | vertebrate(x) and warmBlooded(x) and
hasHair(x) and lactiferous(x)}
– In English: “the set of all x such that x is
vertebrate, x is warm blooded, x has hair, and x is
lactiferous”
Some vocabulary

 Definition by extension – elements are listed


explicitly
 Definition by intension – a specification that
states a property that must be true of each
element
Privileged Sets

 The empty set


– {}
 The Universal set
– U
– Usually the basis from which other sets are
derived
The operator

 States that a particular element is in a set


 x S means that
– x is an element of the set S
– x is a member of the set S
– x is in S
Other set operators (common)

 Union
A B = {x | x A or x B}
 Intersection
A B = {x | x A and x B}
 Compliment
-A = {x | x U and not x A}
 Difference
A-B = {x | x A and not x B}
 Subset
A B = If x A, then x B
Other set operators (uncommon?)

 Proper subset
– A is a proper subset of B if A B and there is at
least one element of B that is not in A
 Superset
– A is a superset of B if B is a subset of A
 Disjoint sets
– Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they
have no common elements
Identities
 Idempotency. A A is identical to A, and A A is also identical to A.
 Commutativity. A B is identical to B A, and A B is identical to B A.
 Associativity. A (B C) is identical to (A B) C, and A (B C) is
identical to (A B) C.
 Distributivity. A (B C) is identical to (A B) (A C), and A (B C) is
identical to (A B) (A C).
 Absorption. A (A B) is identical to A, and A (A B) is also identical to A.
 Double complementation. - -A is identical to A.
 De Morgan's laws. -(A B) is identical to -A -B. and -(A B) is identical to -
A -B.
Defining complex sets

 E.g. the set of all grammatical sentences in


some language
 Typically specified by a recursive definition
 Example: all positive integers not divisible by 3
– Let the set {1, 2} be a subset of S.
– If x is any element of S, then x+3 is also an element
of S.
– S is the smallest set that has the above two
properties; i.e., S is a proper subset of any other set
that has those properties
Bags

 A collection of elements that may contain


duplicates
 A sequence is an ordered bag
– Denoted with angle brackets
– e.g. <178, 184, 178, 181>
 A sequence of two elements is sometimes
called an ordered pair
 A sequence of n elements is an n-tuple
Cross product of sets

 AxB
– Is the set of all possible ordered pairs with the first
element of each pair taken from A and the second
element from B
 If A is the set {1,2} and B is the set {x,y,z}
AxB = {<1,x>,<1,y>,<1,z>,<2,x>,<2,y>,<2,z>}
Functions

 A function is a rule for mapping the elements of one


set to elements of another set

f: A B
 Also written as f(x)
 A is the domain of f
 B is the range of f
 x is the input or argument
 f(x) is the output or image
Onto functions

 A function is onto if every element of its


range is the image of some element of its
domain.
 Z is the set of all integers, and N is the set of
non-negative integers
 square(x) is NOT onto
 abs(x) is onto
One-to-one functions

 A function is one-to-one if no two elements of


its domain are mapped into the same
element of its range.
 abs(x) is not one-to-one
– abs(6) = 6 and abs(-6) = 6
 g(x) = 2x2 + x is one-to-one
– g(0)=0, g(1)=3, g(-1)=1, g(2)=10, g(-2)=6, etc.
– g(x) is not onto because many elements of N are
not images of any element of Z
Isomorphic functions

 A function that is both one-to-one and onto


 Example:
– Let E be the set of even integers, and let O be the
set of odd integers
– increment(x) = x + 1 is isomorphic
 If a function mapping A to B is isomorphic,
then there is also an inverse of it
f -1: B A
– decrement(x) = x - 1
Composition of functions

 The application of one function to the result


of the other
f: A B and g: B C
 g(f(x)) is a function from A to C
 A function can have more than one argument
– The arguments can be said to be the cross
product of the argument sets
f: A×B C
Final vocabulary

 One-argument functions are monadic, two-


arguments is dyadic, triadic, … n-adic
– E.g. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
are dyadic functions defined over the real numbers
 “Mapping” = “function” = “operator”
 The rule that defines a mapping from two sets
is called the intention of the function
 The set of ordered pairs that results from that
rule is the extension of the function
Why do we care?

 Set theory is the foundation of KR


 An ontology is the definition of valid domains,
ranges, and operators

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