Chapter

5 Link
Layer
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6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith
Thanks and enjoy! JFK/KWR
Ross Addison-Wesley
March 2012
All material copyright 1996-2012
J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved

Link Layer 5-
Chapter 5: Link
layer
our goals:
❖ understand principles behind link
layer services:
▪ error detection, correction
▪ sharing a broadcast channel: multiple
access
▪ link layer addressing
▪ local area networks: Ethernet, VLANs
❖ instantiation, implementation of
various link layer technologies

Link Layer 5-2

Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-3
Link layer:
introduction
terminolo
gy:
❖ hosts and routers: nodes
global ISP
❖ communication channels
that connect adjacent
nodes along
communication path: links
▪ wired links
▪ wireless links
❖ ▪ LANs
layer-2 packet:
frame, encapsulates
datagram
data-link layer has responsibility of
transferring datagram from one
node to physically adjacent node
over a link
Link Layer 5-4
Link layer:
context
❖datagram transferred by transportation
different link protocols analogy:
over different links: ❖ trip from Princeton to Lausanne
▪ e.g., Ethernet on first ▪ limo: Princeton to JFK
link, frame relay on ▪ plane: JFK to Geneva
intermediate links, ❖
▪ train: Geneva to Lausanne
802.11 on last link ❖
tourist = datagram
❖ each link protocol transport segment
provides different ❖
= communication
services link
▪ e.g., may or may ❖
transportation mode =
not provide rdt link layer protocol
over link
travel agent =
routing algorithm
Link Layer 5-5
Link layer
services
❖ framing, link access:
▪ encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header,
trailer
▪ channel access if shared medium
▪ “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to
identify source, dest
• different from IP address!
❖ reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
▪ we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)!
▪ seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some
twisted pair)
▪ wireless links: high error rates
• Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

Link Layer 5-6

Link layer services
(more)
❖ flow control:
▪ pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
❖ error detection:
▪ errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
▪ receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
❖ error correction:
▪ receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting
to retransmission
❖ half-duplex and full-duplex
▪ with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit, but
not at same time

Link Layer 5-7

W here is the link layer
implemented?
❖ in each and every host
❖ link layer implemented
in “adaptor” (aka
network interface card
N IC) or on a chip application
▪ Ethernet card, transport
network cpu memory
802.11 card; link

Ethernet chipset host

▪ implements link, controller
bus
(e.g
❖ physical layer link
physical
.,
PCI
physical
attaches into host’s transmission )

❖ system buses
combination of network adapter
card
hardware, software,
firmware
Link Layer 5-8
Adaptors
communicating
datagram datagram

controller controller

sending host receiving host

datagram

frame

❖ sending side: ❖ receiving side

▪ encapsulates datagram ▪ looks for errors,
in frame rdt, flow control,
▪ adds error checking etc
bits, rdt, flow control, ▪ extracts datagram,
etc. passes to upper layer
at receiving side Link Layer 5-9
Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-10
Error
detection
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwise

Link Layer 5-11

 Division in CRC Sender

10.
 Division in the CRC receiver for two cases-message without error and with error

10.
Parity
checking
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
❖ detect single bit ❖ detect and correct single bit errors
errors

0 0

Link Layer 5-14

Internet checksum
(review)
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
packet (note: used at transport layer only)

sende receiver
❖ treat segment
r: : compute checksum
❖
contents as sequence of received
of 16-bit integers ❖ segment
❖ checksum: addition check if computed
(1’s complement checksum equals
sum) of segment checksum field value:
❖ contents ▪ N O - error detected
sender puts ▪ YES - no error
checksum value detected. But maybe
into UDP checksum errors nonetheless?
field

Link Layer 5-15

C yclic redundancy
check
❖ more powerful error-detection
❖ coding view data bits, D , as a
❖ binary number choose r+1 bit
❖ pattern (generator), G goal:
choose r C RC bits, R, such that
▪ <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo
2)
▪ receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero
❖ widely used in
remainder: practice
error (Ethernet, 802.11 W iFi,
detected!
▪ can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
ATM)

Link Layer 5-16

Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-17
Multiple access links,
protocols
two types of “links”:
❖ point-to-point
▪ PPP for dial-up access
▪ point-to-point link between Ethernet switch,
host
❖ broadcast (shared wire or
medium)
▪ old-fashioned Ethernet
▪ upstream HFC
▪ 802.11 wireless LAN

shared wire (e.g., shared RF (e.g., shared RF humans at a

cabled Ethernet) 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail party
(shared air,
acoustical)
Link Layer 5-18
Multiple access
protocols
❖single shared broadcast channel
❖ two or more simultaneous transmissions by
nodes: interference
▪ collision if node receives two or more signals at the
same time

multiple access
protocol
❖ distributed algorithm that determines how nodes
share channel, i.e., determine when node can
❖ transmit
communication about channel sharing must use
channel itself!
▪ no out-of-band channel for coordination

Link Layer 5-19

An ideal multiple access
protocol
given: broadcast channel of rate R bps
desiderata:
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at rate
R.
2.when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at
average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple

Link Layer 5-20

MAC protocols:
taxonomy
three broad classes:
❖ channel partitioning
▪ divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots, frequency,
code)
▪ allocate piece to node for exclusive use
❖ random access
▪ channel not divided, allow collisions
▪ “recover” from collisions
❖ “taking turns”
▪ nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take
longer turns

Link Layer 5-21

C hannel partitioning MAC protocols:
TDM A
TDMA: time division multiple access
❖ access to channel in "rounds"
❖ each station gets fixed length slot (length
= pkt trans time) in each round
❖ unused slots go idle
❖ example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
slots 2,5,6 idle

6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

Link Layer 5-22

C hannel partitioning MAC protocols:
FDM A
FD M A: frequency division multiple
access
❖ channel spectrum divided into frequency
❖ bands each station assigned fixed
❖ frequency band
❖ unused transmission time in frequency
bands go idle
example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands
2,5,6 idle time
frequency bands

FDM cable

Link Layer 5-23

Random access
protocols
❖ when node has packet to send
▪ transmit at full channel data rate R.
▪ no a priori coordination among nodes
❖ two or more transmitting nodes ➜
“collision”,
❖ random access MAC protocol specifies:
▪ how to detect collisions
▪ how to recover from collisions (e.g., via
delayed retransmissions)
❖ examples of random access MAC
protocols:
▪ slotted ALO HA
▪ ALOHA
▪ CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA Link Layer 5-24
Slotted
ALO HA
assumptions operation:
: all frames same size
❖ ❖ when node obtains fresh
❖ time divided into equal frame, transmits in next
size slots (time to slot
transmit 1 frame) ▪ if no collision: node can
❖ nodes start to send new frame in next
transmit only slot slot
❖ beginning ▪ if collision: node
❖ nodes are retransmits frame in
synchronized each subsequent slot
if 2 or more nodes with prob. p until
transmit in slot, all success
nodes detect collision

Link Layer 5-25

Slotted
ALO HA
node 1 1 1 1 1

node 2 2 2 2

node 3 3 3 3

C E C S E C E S S

Pro Cons:
s: single active node can
❖ ❖ collisions, wasting
continuously ❖ slots idle slots
transmit at full rate
❖ of channel
❖ nodes may be able
highly decentralized: to detect collision
only slots in nodes in less than time to
❖ need to be in sync transmit packet
simple ❖ clock
synchronization Link Layer 5-26
Slotted ALOHA:
efficiency
efficiency: long-run ❖ max efficiency: find p*
fraction of successful that maximizes
slots (many nodes, all Np(1-p)N-1
with many frames to ❖ for many nodes, take
send) limit of N p*(1-p*)N-1 as
❖ suppose: N nodes with N goes to infinity,
many frames to send, gives:
each transmits in slot max efficiency = 1/e
with probability p = .37

!
❖ prob that given node at best:
has success in a slot= channel used for
p(1-p)N-1 useful
❖ prob that any node has transmissions
a success = Np(1-p)N-1 37% of time!
Link Layer 5-27
Pure (unslotted)
ALOHA
❖unslotted Aloha: simpler, no
❖ synchronization when frame first arrives
▪transmit immediately
❖ collision probability
increases:
▪ frame sent at t0 collides
with other frames sent in
[t0-1,t0+1]

Link Layer 5-28

Pure ALOHA
efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .

P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0]

.

P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0]

= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)

… choosing optimum p and then letting n

= 1/(2e) = .18

even worse than slotted Aloha!

Link Layer 5-29

C SMA (carrier sense multiple
access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:
if channel sensed idle: transmit entire
frame
❖ if channel sensed busy, defer

transmission
❖ human analogy: don’t interrupt

others!

Link Layer 5-30

CSMA spatial layout of nodes

collisions
❖collisions can still
occur: propagation
delay means two
nodes may not
hear each
❖ other’s
transmission
collision: entire
packet transmission
time wasted
▪ distance &
propagation delay
play role in in
determining collision
probability

Link Layer 5-31

CSMA/CD (collision
detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in C SMA
▪ collisions detected within short time
▪ colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
wastage
❖ collision detection:
▪ easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
▪ difficult in wireless LANs: received signal
strength overwhelmed by local transmission
strength
❖ human analogy: the polite
conversationalist
Link Layer 5-32
CSMA/CD (collision
detection) spatial layout of nodes

Link Layer 5-33

Ethernet CSMA/C D
algorithm
1. N IC receives 4. If NIC detects
datagram from another transmission
network layer, while transmitting,
creates frame aborts and sends
2. If NIC senses channel jam signal
idle, starts frame 5. After aborting, NIC
transmission. If NIC enters binary
senses channel busy, (exponential) backoff:
waits until channel ▪ after mth collision,
idle, then transmits. N IC chooses K at
3. If NIC transmits entire random from {0,1,2,
frame without …, 2m-1}. N IC waits
detecting another K·512 bit times,
transmission, NIC is returns to Step 2
done with frame ! ▪ longer backoff Link Layer 5-34
CSMA/CD
efficiency
❖T = max prop delay between 2 nodes in
prop

❖ LAN ttrans = time to transmit max-size

frame
1
efficiency 
1  5t prop /t trans
❖ efficiency goes to 1
▪ as tprop goes to 0
▪ as ttrans goes to infinity
❖
better performance than ALOHA: and simple,
cheap, decentralized!

Link Layer 5-35

“Taking turns” MAC
protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
▪ share channel efficiently and fairly at high load
▪ inefficient at low load: delay in channel access,
1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1
active node!
random access MAC protocols
▪ efficient at low load: single node can fully
utilize channel
▪ high load: collision overhead
“taking turns” protocols
look for best of both worlds!

Link Layer 5-36

“Taking turns” MAC
protocols
polling
:❖ master node
“invites” slave nodes data
to transmit in turn poll
❖ typically used with
“dumb” slave master
❖ devices data

concerns:
▪ polling overhead
▪ latency slaves
▪ single point
of failure
(master)

Link Layer 5-37

Polling (Cont..)

The polling protocol eliminates the collisions and empty slots that plague
random access protocols. This allows polling to achieve a much higher
efficiency.

But it also has a few drawbacks.

The first drawback is that the protocol introduces a polling delay—the amount
of time required to notify a node that it can transmit. If, for example, only
one node is active, then the node will transmit at a rate less than R bps, as the
master node must poll each of the inactive nodes in turn each time the
active node has sent its maximum number of frames.

The second drawback, which is potentially more serious, is that if the master
node fails, the entire channel becomes inoperative.
“Taking turns” MAC
protocols
token
T
passing:
❖ control token
passed from one
node to next
❖ sequentially.
(nothing
❖ token to send)
message T
concerns:
▪ token
overhead
▪ latency
▪ single point of
failure (token) data
Link Layer 5-39
Token Passing (Cont..)

In this protocol there is no master node. A small, special-purpose

frame known as a token is exchanged among the nodes in some fixed
order.
When a node receives a token, it holds onto the token only if it has
some frames to transmit; otherwise, it immediately forwards the
token to the next node.
If a node does have frames to transmit when it receives the token, it
sends up to a maximum number of frames and then forwards the
token to the next node
Token passing is decentralized and highly efficient

Disadvantages
For example, the failure of one node can crash the entire channel.
if a node accidentally neglects to release the token, then some
recovery procedure must be invoked to get the token back
in circulation
C able access
network Internet frames,TV channels, control transmitted
downstream at different frequencies

cable headend

CMTS
…

splitter cable
cable modem … modem
termination system

ISP upstream Internet frames, TV control, transmitted

upstream at different frequencies in time slots

❖ multiple 40Mbps downstream (broadcast) channels

▪ single CMTS transmits into channels
❖ multiple 30 Mbps upstream channels
▪ multiple access: all users contend for certain
upstream channel time slots (others assigned)
C able access
network
cable headend MAP frame for
Interval [t1,
t2]
Downstream channel i
CMTS
Upstream channel j

t1 t2 Residences with cable modems

Minislots containing Assigned minislots containing cable modem

minislots request frames upstream data frames

D O C SIS: data over cable service interface

spec
❖ FD M over upstream, downstream frequency channels
❖ TDM upstream: some slots assigned, some
have contention
▪ downstream MAP frame: assigns upstream
slots
▪ request for upstream slots (and data) transmitted
Summary of MAC
protocols
❖channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code
▪ Time Division, Frequency Division
❖ random access (dynamic),
▪ ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
▪ carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire),
hard in others (wireless)
▪ CSMA/C D used in Ethernet
▪ CSMA/CA used in 802.11
❖ taking turns
▪ polling from central site, token passing
▪ bluetooth, FDD I, token ring

Link Layer 5-43

Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-44
MAC addresses and
ARP
❖ 32-bit IP address:
▪ network-layer address for interface
▪ used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
❖ MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address:
▪ function: used ‘locally” to get frame from one interface
to another physically-connected interface (same network,
in IP- addressing sense)
▪ 48 bit MAC address (for most LA N s) burned in
N IC ROM, also sometimes software settable
▪ e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-A D
hexadecimal (base 16) notation
(each “number” represents 4 bits)

Link Layer 5-45

 LAN addresses and
ARP
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN
address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

LAN
(wired or adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

Link Layer 5-46

LAN addresses
(more)
❖ MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
❖ manufacturer buys portion of MAC address
space (to assure uniqueness)
❖ analogy:
▪ MAC address: like Social Security N umber
▪ IP address: like postal address
❖ MAC flat address ➜ portability
▪ can move LA N card from one LA N to
another
❖ IP▪ hierarchical address
address depends on IPnot portable
subnet to which
node is attached

Link Layer 5-47

 ARP: address resolution
protocol
Question: how to determine
interface’s MAC address,
knowing its IP address? ARP table: each IP node
(host, router) on LAN has
table
137.196.7.78
▪ IP/MAC address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
mappings for some
137.196.7.23
137.196.7.14 LAN nodes:
< IP address; MAC address;
LA TTL>
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 N ▪ TTL (Time To Live):
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
time after which
address mapping will
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
be forgotten
137.196.7.88
(typically 20 min)
Link Layer 5-48
ARP protocol: same
LAN
❖A wants to send
datagram to B
▪ B’s MAC address not in ❖ A caches (saves) IP-to-
A’s ARP table. MAC address pair in
❖ A broadcasts ARP its ARP table until
query packet, information becomes
containing B's IP old (times out)
address ▪ soft state: information
▪ dest MAC address = FF- that times out (goes
FF- FF-FF-FF-FF away) unless refreshed
▪ all nodes on LAN ❖ ARP is “plug-and-play”:
❖ receive ARP query ▪ nodes create their
B receives ARP packet, ARP tables without
intervention from net
replies to A with its administrator
(B's) MAC address
▪ frame sent to A’s
MAC address
Link Layer 5-49
(unicast)
 Addressing: routing to another
LAN send datagram from A to B via R
walkthrough:
▪ focus on addressing – at IP (datagram) and MAC layer
(frame)
▪ assume A knows B’s IP address
▪ assume A knows IP address of first hop router, R (how?)
▪ assume A knows R’s MAC address (how?)

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-50

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
❖A creates IP datagram with IP source A, destination B
❖ A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-51

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
❖ frame sent from A to R
❖ frame received at R, datagram removed, passed up to
IP
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-EIP9-0s0rc-:1171-B1B.1-141B.111.111

IP src: 111.11IP1.1d1e1s.t:112122.222.222.222
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP IP
Eth Eth
Phy Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-52

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
❖R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
❖ R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram

MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-53

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
❖R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
❖ R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram

MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-54

Addressing: routing to another
LAN
❖R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
❖ R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

I
P
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Link Layer 5-55

Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-56
Etherne
t“dominant” wired LAN
technology:
❖ cheap $20 for N IC
❖ first widely used LA N technology
❖ simpler, cheaper than token LA N s and
❖ ATM kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps –

10 Gbps

Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch

Link Layer 5-57
Ethernet: physical
topology
❖ bus: popular through mid 90s
▪ all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with
each other)
❖ star: prevails today
▪ active switch in center
▪ each “spoke” runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol
(nodes do not collide with each other)

switch
star
bus: coaxial cable
Link Layer 5-58
Ethernet frame
structure
sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet
frame
dest. source type
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)

preamble:
❖ 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by
one byte with pattern 10101011
❖ used to synchronize receiver, sender clock

rates

Link Layer 5-59

Ethernet frame structure
(more)
❖ addresses: 6 byte source, destination MAC
addresses
▪ if adapter receives frame with matching destination
address, or with broadcast address (e.g. ARP packet),
it passes data in frame to network layer protocol
▪ otherwise, adapter discards frame
❖ type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP
but others possible, e.g., N ovell IPX ,
AppleTalk)
❖ CRC: cyclic redundancy check at receiver
type
▪ error detected: frame is dropped
dest. source
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)

Link Layer 5-60

Ethernet: unreliable,
connectionless
❖ connectionless: no handshaking between
sending and receiving N ICs
❖ unreliable: receiving NIC doesnt send acks or
nacks to sending N IC
▪ data in dropped frames recovered only if
initial sender uses higher layer rdt (e.g.,
TCP), otherwise dropped data lost
❖ Ethernet’s MAC protocol: unslotted
CSMA/CD wth binary backoff

Link Layer 5-61

802.3 Ethernet standards: link & physical
layers
❖ many different Ethernet standards
▪ common MAC protocol and frame format
▪ different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps,
1Gbps, 10G bps
▪ different physical layer media: fiber, cable

MAC protocol
application and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2
100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-BX
physical 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX

copper (twister fiber physical layer

pair) physical layer
Link Layer 5-62
Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-63
Ethernet
switch
❖ link-layer device: takes an active role

▪ store, forward Ethernet frames

▪ examine incoming frame’s MAC address,
selectively forward frame to one-or-
more outgoing links when frame is to be
forwarded on segment, uses C SMA/C D to
access segment
❖ transparent
▪ hosts are unaware of presence of switches
❖ plug-and-play, self-learning
▪ switches do not need to be configured

Link Layer 5-64

Switch: multiple simultaneous
transmissions
❖ hosts have dedicated, A
direct connection to
❖ switch C’ B

❖ switches buffer packets 1 2

6
Ethernet protocol used on
each 5 4 3
incoming link, but no
collisions; B C
’
❖ full duplex
▪ each link is its own A’
collision domain switch with six interfaces
switching: A-to-A’ and (1,2,3,4,5,6)
B-to-B’ can transmit
simultaneously, without
collisions Link Layer 5-65
Switch forwarding
table
Q: how does switch know A
A’ reachable via interface B
C’
4, B’ reachable via
interface 5? 6 1 2
❖ A: each switch has
4
a switch table, each 5 3

entry: B C
’
▪ (MAC address of host,
interface to reach host, A’
time are
Q: how stamp)
entries switch with six interfaces
created, maintained
▪ looks like a routing table! (1,2,3,4,5,6)
in switch table?
▪ something like a
routing protocol? Link Layer 5-66
Switch: self- Source: A
Dest: A’

learning
❖ switch learns which A A A’
hosts can be reached
C B
through which
’
interfaces 1
6 2
▪ when frame received,
switch “learns” 5 4 3
location of sender:
incoming LAN B C
segment ’
▪ records
A’
sender/location pair
in switch table MAC addr interface TTL
A 1 60 Switch table
(initially empty)

Link Layer 5-67

Switch: frame
filtering/forwarding
when frame received at switch:

1. record incoming link, MAC address of sending host

2. index switch table using MAC destination address
3. if entry found for
destination then {
if destination on segment from which frame
arrived then drop frame
else forward frame on interface indicated by
entry
}
else flood /* forward on all interfaces except
arriving interface */
Link Layer 5-68
Self-learning, forwarding: Source: A
Dest: A’

example A A A’
❖ frame destination, A’,
B
locaton unknown: C
’
flood 6 1 2

❖ destination A A A’
5 4 3

location known: B C
’
selectively send A’
A
on just one link
A’
MAC addr interface TTL
A 1 60 switch table
A’ 4 60 (initially empty)

Link Layer 5-69

Interconnecting
switches
❖ switches can be connected

together S4

S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E

Q: sending from A to G - how does S1

know to forward frame destined to F via
S4 and S3?
❖A: self learning! (works exactly the same as
in single- switch case!) Link Layer 5-70
Self-learning multi-switch
example
Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds
to C
S4

S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E

❖ Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in S1, S2,

S3, S4

Link Layer 5-71

Institutional
network
mail server
to external
network
router web server

IP subnet

Link Layer 5-72

Switches vs.
routers application
transport
both are store-and-
datagram network
forward: frame link
▪routers: network-layer physical lin frame
devices (examine k
physical
network- layer headers)
▪switches: link-layer switch
devices (examine link-
network
layer headers) datagram
lin frame
k
physical
both have forwarding
tables: application
▪routers: compute tables transport
using routing algorithms, network
IP addresses link
physical
▪switches: learn
forwarding table using Link Layer 5-73
flooding, learning, MAC
VLANs:
motivation consid
er:
❖ C S user moves office
to EE, but wants
connect to CS switch?
❖ single broadcast
domain:
▪ all layer-2
Computer
Computer
broadcast traffic
Science Electrical Engineering (ARP, D H CP,
Engineering
unknown location
of destination
MAC address)
must cross entire
LA N
▪ security/
privacy, Link Layer 5-74
 port-based VLA N : switch ports
VLAN s grouped (by switch
management software) so
that single physical switch
Virtual Local …… 1 7 9 15
Area Network 2 8 10 16

switch(es) supporting
VLAN capabilities can … …
be configured to define Electrical Engineering Computer Science
multiple virtual LANS (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)

over single physical … operates as multiple virtual

LAN infrastructure. switches
1 7 9 15
2 8 10 16

… …

Electrical Engineering Computer Science

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-16)

Link Layer 5-75

 Port-based
❖
VLAN
traffic isolation: frames
to/from ports 1-8 can only
router

reach ports 1-8

▪ can also define VLA N based
on MAC addresses of
endpoints, rather than 1 7 9 15

switch port 2 8 10 16

❖ dynamic membership:
ports can be dynamically … …
assigned among VLAN s Electrical Engineering Computer Science
(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)
❖ forwarding between VLANS:
done via routing (just as with
separate switches)
▪ in practice vendors sell
combined switches plus
routers
Link Layer 5-76
VLANS spanning multiple
switches
1 7 9 15 1 3 5 7

2 8 10 16 2 4 6 8

… …

Electrical Engineering Computer Science Ports 2,3,5 belong to EE VLAN

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15) Ports 4,6,7,8 belong to CS VLAN

❖ trunk port: carries frames between VLANS defined

over multiple physical switches
▪ frames forwarded within VLAN between switches can’t be
vanilla
802.1 frames (must carry VLAN ID info)
▪ 802.1q protocol adds/removed additional header fields for
frames forwarded between trunk ports

Link Layer 5-77

802.1Q VLAN frame
format type

preamble dest. source data (payload) CRC

address address 802.1 frame

type

data (payload) CRC 802.1Q frame

2-byte Tag Protocol Identifier Recomputed

(value: 81-00) CRC

Tag Control Information (12 bit VLAN ID field,

3 bit priority field like IP TOS)

Link Layer 5-78

Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-79
Multiprotocol label switching
(MPLS)
❖ initial goal: high-speed IP forwarding using
fixed length label (instead of IP address)
▪ fast lookup using fixed length identifier (rather
than shortest prefix matching)
▪ borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC)
approach
▪ but IP datagram still keeps IP address!
PPP or Ethernet
MPLS IP header remainder of link-layer frame
header Headerheader

Label-
label Exp S TTL

20 3 1 5
Link Layer 5-80
MPLS capable
routers
❖ a.k.a. label-switched router
❖ forward packets to outgoing interface based only
on label value (don’t inspect IP address)
▪ MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
❖ flexibility: MPLS forwarding decisions can
differ from those of IP
▪ use destination and source addresses to route
flows to same destination differently (traffic
engineering)
▪ re-route flows quickly if link fails: pre-computed
backup paths (useful for VoIP)

Link Layer 5-81

MPLS versus IP
paths
R6
D
R4 R3
R5
A
R2

❖ IP routing: path to destination IP router

determined by destination
address alone

Link Layer 5-82

MPLS versus IP
paths entry router (R4)

can use different MPLS routes to A based,

e.g., on source address
R6 R4 R3
R5 D

A
R2

❖ IP routing: path to destination IP-only

determined by destination router
address alone MPLS and
IP router
❖ MPLS routing: path to destination
can be based on source and dest.
address
Link Layer 5-83
MPLS
signaling
❖ modify OSPF, IS-IS link-state flooding protocols
to carry info used by MPLS routing,
▪ e.g., link bandwidth, amount of “reserved” link
bandwidth
❖ entry MPLS router uses RSVP-TE signaling protocol to
set up MPLS forwarding at downstream routers

RSVP-TE
R6
D
R4
R5 modified
link state A
flooding

Link Layer 5-84

MPLS forwarding
tables
in label out
label dest
out

interface
10 A 0
in out out
12 D 0 label label dest
in te rf e
8 A 1 1 0 6
ac A 1
12 9 0
D
R6
0 0
D
1 1
R4 R3
R5
0 0
A
R2 in
out
out
in out out label labelR dest
label label dest int erface A
int erfa e
8 6 6 -
c
A 0 0
Link Layer 5-85
MPLS(Cont..)

In the example in Figure routers R1 through R4 are MPLS capable. R5

and R6 are standard IP routers.
Router R1 has advertised to R2 and R3 that it (R1) can route
to destination A, and that a received frame with MPLS label 6 will be
forwarded to destination A.
Router R3 has advertised to router R4 that it can route to destinations
A and D, and that incoming frames with MPLS labels 10 and 12,
respectively, will be switched toward those destinations and so on
MPLS performs switching based on labels, without needing to consider
the IP address of a packet.
R4 has two MPLS paths to A. If forwarding were performed up at the IP
layer on the basis of IP address, would specify only a single, least-cost
path to A.
Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-87
Data center
networks
❖ 10’s to 100’s of thousands of hosts, often
closely coupled, in close proximity:
▪ e-business (e.g. Amazon)
▪ content-servers (e.g., YouTube, Akamai, Apple,
Microsoft)
▪ search engines, data mining (e.g., Google)
❖ challenges:
▪ multiple applications,
each serving massive
numbers of clients
▪ managing/balancing load,
avoiding processing,
networking, data
bottlenecks
Link Layer 5-88
Inside a 40-ft Microsoft container,
Data center
networks load balancer: application-layer
routing
▪ receives external client requests
▪ directs workload within data center
Internet ▪center
returnsinternals
results tofrom
external client (hiding
client)
data
Border router
Load Load
balancer Access router
balancer

Tier-1 switches
B

A C Tier-2 switches

TOR
switches
Server racks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Link Layer 5-85
Data center
networks
❖ rich interconnection among switches, racks:

▪ increased throughput between racks (multiple

routing paths possible)
▪ increased reliability via redundancy

Tier-1 switches

Tier-2 switches

TOR
switches
Server racks

5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4
Link layer, LAN s:
outline
1. introduction, 5. link
services virtualization:
2. error detection, MPLS
correction 6. data
3. multiple center
access networking
protocols 7. a day in the life
4. LANs of a web request
▪ addressing,
ARP
▪ Ethernet
▪ switches
▪ VLANS Link Layer 5-91
Synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request
❖ journey down protocol stack complete!
▪ application, transport, network, link
❖ putting-it-all-together: synthesis!
▪ goal: identify, review, understand protocols
(at all layers) involved in seemingly simple
scenario: requesting www page
▪ scenario: student attaches laptop to campus
network, requests/receives www.google.com

Link Layer 5-92

 A day in the life:
scenario
browser DNS server
Comcast network
68.80.0.0/13

school network
68.80.2.0/24

web page

web server Google’s network

64.233.169.105 64.233.160.0/19

Link Layer 5-93

A day in the life… connecting to the
Internet
DHCPDHCP ❖ connecting laptop needs
UDP
DHCP
DHCP IP
to get its own IP
DHCP Eth address, addr of first-
Phy hop router, addr of D N S
DHCP server: use DHCP
❖ D HCP request
encapsulated in UDP,
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP UDP
encapsulated in IP,
DHCP IP encapsulated in 802.3
DHCP Eth router Ethernet
(runs DHCP) ❖
Phy
Ethernet frame broadcast
(dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on
LAN , received at
❖ router running DHCP
server
Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, U DP demuxed
to DHCP Link Layer 5-94
A day in the life… connecting to the
Internet
DHCP
DHCP ❖ DHCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name
& IP address of DNS
❖ server
DHCP DHCP encapsulation at
DHCP UDP D H C P server, frame
DHCP IP forwarded (switch
DHCP Eth router learning) through
DHCP
Phy (runs DHCP) ❖ LAN, demultiplexing
at client
DH C P client
receives DHCP
ACK reply
Client now has IP address, knows name & addr of
DNS server, IP address of its first-hop
router
Link Layer 5-95
A day in the life… ARP (before DNS, before
HTTP)DNS
DNS
❖ before sending HTTP request,
need IP address of www.google
DNS UDP .com: DNS
ARPIP
DNS Eth ❖ D N S query created,
ARP
query
Phy encapsulated in UDP,
encapsulated in IP,
ARP
encapsulated in Eth. To send
ARP reply Eth
Phy
frame to router, need MAC
❖
address of router interface: ARP
router
(runs DHCP) ARP query broadcast,
received by router, which
replies with ARP reply giving
❖
MAC address of router
interface
client now knows MAC
address of first hop router,
so can now send frame
containing D N S query Link Layer 5-96
A day in the life… using DNS
UDP
DNS DNS
DNS IP
DNS server
DNS DNS DNS Eth
DNS
DNS Phy
UDP
DNS IP
DNS Eth
Phy
DNS Comcast network
68.80.0.0/13

router
❖ IP datagram forwarded from
(runs DHCP) campus network into comcast
❖ IP datagram containing network, routed (tables
D N S query forwarded via created by RIP, OSPF, IS-IS
LAN switch from client and/or BGP routing protocols)
to 1st hop router ❖ to DNS server
❖ demux’ed to D N S server
D N S server replies to
client with IP addressLink
ofLayer 5-97
www.google.com
A day in the life…TCP connection carrying
HTTP
HTTP
HTTP
SYSNYANCK TCP
SYSNYA IP
NCK
SYSNYA Eth
NCK
Phy

❖ to send HTTP
client first opens TCP
request,
socket
router ❖ to web server
(runs DHCP)
SYSNYANCK TCP TC P SYN segment (step 1 in
SYSNYANCK IP 3- way handshake) inter-
SYSNYA
Eth domain routed to web
NCK
Phy ❖ web server responds with
server
TCP SYNACK (step 2 in 3-
web server way handshake)
64.233.169.105 ❖ TCP connection established!

Link Layer 5-98

A day in the life… HTTP
request/reply
HTTP
HHTTTP web page finally (!!!)
❖
P HTTP TCP displayed
HTTP IP
HTTP Eth
Phy

❖ HTTP request sent into

TCP socket
router ❖ IP datagram containing
HTTP (runs DHCP)
HTTP
HTTP TCP
HTTP request routed to
HTTP IP www.google.com
HTTP Eth ❖ web server responds
Phy with HTTP reply
(containing web page)
web server
64.233.169.105
❖ IP datagram containing
HTTP reply routed back
to client
Link Layer 5-99
Chapter 5:
Summary
❖ principles behind data link layer services:
▪ error detection, correction
▪ sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
▪ link layer addressing
❖ instantiation and implementation of various
link layer technologies
▪ Ethernet
▪ switched LA N S, VLA N s
▪ virtualized networks as a link layer: MPLS
❖ synthesis: a day in the life of a web
request

Link Layer 5-100

C hapter 5: let’s take a
breath
❖ journey down protocol stack complete
(except PHY)
❖ solid understanding of networking
principles, practice
❖ ….. could stop here …. but lots of
interesting topics!
▪ wireless
▪ multimedia
▪ security
▪ network management

Link Layer 5-101