SYLLABUS:

1. Introduction & Physical Layer - Introduction to the Internet - Services and Protocols, Edge -
Protocol Layers and Service Models OSI and TCP/IP models. ​
2. Data link Layer - Link Layer – Services - Error Detection and Correction; Multiple Access
protocols- channel partitioning - Random access - Taking-Turns protocols - Switched LANs ARP - Ethernet
- Link layer switching – VLANs – MPLS.​
3. Network Layer - Data plane forwarding vs. Control plane routing - Software Defined Networking
(SDN) approach - Network Services - Router architecture - Switching fabrics - Input and output queueing-
Core, Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching - Performance Metrics Delay - Loss – Throughput - IPv4 and
IPv6 addressing DHCP -NAT - IPv4 and IPv6 fragmentation – SDN-based generalized forwarding -
Routing and Supporting Algorithms - Link State vs. Distance Vector - RIP - OSPF – BGP – ICMP - SNMP
- SDN Control Plane. ​
4.Transport Layer - Unreliable Connectionless vs. Reliable Connection-Oriented Services -
Multiplexing; Stop-and-Wait - Go-Back-N and Selective-Repeat - UDP vs. TCP - Flow and Congestion
Control. ​
5. Application Layer - Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer architectures - Application Layer protocols ​
6. Introduction to Wireless and Mobile Networks - Link characteristics - CDMA - 802.11 WiFi -
Bluetooth and Zigbee - Cellular Networks - GSM – UMTS – LTE - Mobility management and handoff -
Mobile IP.​
Part-2 (Lecture Flow & Book Details)

Data link Layer - Link Layer – Services - Error Detection and Correction: Behrouz Forouzan, “Data
Communication and Networking”, Tata McGraw Hill 3rd edition. Chapter-10, Page Nos: 243-259.
Multiple Access protocols Channel partitioning - Random access - Taking-Turns protocols: Behrouz
Forouzan, “Data Communication and Networking”, Tata McGraw Hill 3rd edition. Chapter-13, Page
Nos: 311-325.
Switched LANs ARP: James Kurose and Keith Ross, “Computer Networking: A Top-down Approach”
5th edition, Addison Wesley 2010. Chapter-5- Only 5.4.1. Page Nos: 462 to 469.
Ethernet: James Kurose and Keith Ross, “Computer Networking: A Top-down Approach” 5th edition,
Addison Wesley 2010. Chapter-5- Only 5.4.2. Page Nos: 469 to 476.
Link layer switching: Behrouz Forouzan, “Data Communication and Networking”, Tata McGraw Hill
4th edition. Chapter-15— only page no.-447(Bridges).
The Link Layer and Local Area Networks

Understand principles behind link layer services:

• error detection, correction
• sharing a broadcast channel: multiple access
Understanding Link Layer protocol: PPP
Understanding local area network: Ethernet
Introduction and Services
• Data link layer is responsible for carrying packets from one hop to
the next hop
• Data link layer has local responsibility
• Data link layer is divided into two functionality-oriented sublayers
- Logical Link Control (LLC)
- Medium Access Control (MAC)
ERROR CONTROL:
• Network transfers data from one device to another with accuracy
• Reliable systems have mechanism for detecting and correcting errors
• Data can be corrupted during transmission.
• Due to interference
• Change in the shape of the signal
Types of Error :
• Single-Bit Error
• Burst Error
Single bit error:
In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data unit has changed.
ERROR CONTROL:
Burst Error:
A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed.
SINGLE BIT ERROR:
• Only one bit is changed
• For ex: If ASCII word 02H is transmitted, when it reaches receiver it becomes 0AH, meaning
itself is changed
• 02H- STX- start of text
• 0AH-LF-Line feed
• In serial data transmission, single bit errors are least likely to occur.
• For ex:
• If data rate is 1 Mbps, duration of each bit is 1/data rate = 1micro sec
• Single bit error to occur, noise must have duration of 1 micro sec only which is not possible
because noise duration is more than this
• It affects parallel transmission
BURST ERROR:
• Two or more bits are changed
• The length of the burst is measured from first corrupted bit to last corrupted bit
• In parallel data transmission, burst errors are least likely to occur.
• It affects serial transmission
• For ex:
• If data rate is 1 Kbps, duration of each bit is 1/data rate = 1msec
• Noise duration is shorter than the duration of one bit, so it affects set of bits
• Number of bits affected depends on data rate and the duration of the noise

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
1
0
Sender 1 Receiver
1
0
1
Error detection:
• Redundancy
• Parity Check
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Checksum

Ist method:
• Error detection is done by sending every data twice
• Receiver does bit by bit comparison between the two sets of the data
• Any discrepancy results in error and correction has to be done
Advantage:
Accuracy
Disadvantage:
Slow
Transmission time is doubled and takes more time for bit by bit comparison
Redundancy:
• Adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination.
• Sender appends shorter group of bits and transmits
• Receiver checks the data and redundant bits are discarded
Error Detection Methods:
Simple Parity Check:
• Even or Odd parity check: Parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s
is even (or odd for odd-parity)
Numerical:
Ex:1
Suppose the sender wants to send the word world. In ASCII the five characters are coded as
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100
The following shows the actual bits sent
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001

Ex:2
Now suppose the word world in Ex:1 is received by the receiver without being corrupted in
transmission.
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with even numbers (6, 6, 4, 4, 4).
The data are accepted.
Numerical:
Ex3:
Now suppose the word world in Ex:1 is corrupted during transmission.
11111110 11011110 11101100 11011000 11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with even and odd numbers (7, 6, 5,
4, 4). The receiver knows that the data are corrupted, discards them, and asks for retransmission.

Note:

• Simple parity check can detect all single-bit errors.

• It can detect burst errors only if the total number of errors in each data unit is odd.
CRC ( CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK):
• Most powerful technique
• Performs binary division
• Sequence of redundant bits called the CRC remainder is appended to the end of data unit
• Resulting data unit is exactly divisible by predetermined binary number
• At the destination, incoming data unit is divisible by the same binary number
• No remainder – data is proper and accepted
• There is remainder – data is damaged and rejected
• Redundancy bits are derived by dividing the data unit by a predetermined divisor and
remainder is the CRC

Two qualities:
• CRC must have exactly one bit less than the divisor
• After appending CRC at the end of the data, resulting sequence exactly divisible by the
divisor
CRC ( CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK):
Note:
• CRC can be all zeros
CRC:
CRC Polynomial:
• Divisor is represented as a algebraic
polynomial but not as a string of o’s and 1’s
Reason for using polynomial:
• Short
• Used to prove the concept mathematically
CRC Generator:
• Uses mod 2 division
• Size of divisor is n+1
• n= Number of appended
zeros
• Divisor always begins
with 1
• Dividend – divisor and
leftmost bit of dividend
should be 1
• First bit of remainder is
zero then use 0000
• If second bit is also
zero then it is
retained
CRC Checker:
• Uses mod 2 division
• Data is received as data
followed by CRC
• Remainder=0, CRC is
dropped and data is
accepted
• Else data is discarded and
resent
Checksum
Now, suppose receiver receives the pattern and
there is no error
Error Correction Methods:

• Retransmission

• Receiver asks for retransmission of entire data

• Forward Error Correction

ERROR CORRECTION:
Forward error correction:
• Consider single bit error has occurred in ASCII character, error is detected by error detecting
code and error correcting code must determine which 7 bits has changed
• Define 8 states
1. No error
2. Error in bit 1
3. Error in bit 2
4. Error in bit 3
5. Error in bit 4
6. Error in bit 5
7. Error in bit 6
8. Error in bit 7
• Redundancy bits are required to show the above states
• 3 bit redundancy code is enough to show 000 to 111
ERROR CORRECTION:
Forward error correction:
• Suppose error occurs in redundancy bit itself. i.e. data (7) + redundancy bits (3)=10 bits
• If 3 bits are taken then it will identify only 8 states, additional bits are required to cover all
error
• 2r >= m + r + 1
• Where m = number of data bits in message
r = number of redundant bits
• Length of the resulting code= m + r
• If m= 7, then r = ? 4
Redundant bits are represented as r1, r2, r4, r8
m + r = 7 + 4 = 11
Hamming code:
• Provides practical solution
• Applied to data unit of any length

Number of Number of Total

data bits redundancy bits bits
m r m+r

1 2 3

2 3 5

3 3 6

4 3 7

5 4 9

6 4 10

7 4 11
r8 r4 r2 r1 No. of
bits
0 0 0 1 1 r1 : 1 , 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13……..
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3 r2 : 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11………….
0 1 0 0 4
0 1 0 1 5
r4 : 4, 5, 6,7, 12, 13, 14, 15,………..
0 1 1 0 6
0 1 1 1 7
r8 : 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,………
1 0 0 0 8
1 0 0 1 9
1 0 1 0 10
1 0 1 1 11
1 1 0 0 12
1 1 0 1 13
1 1 1 0 14
1 1 1 1 15
Hamming code:
Finding r values: assume even parity
Hamming code:
Hamming code:
• Easily implemented using hardware
• Code is corrected before the receiver knows about it