INTRODUCTON

Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor

Eg= 1.1eV (Si)

Eg= 0.67 eV(Ge)
Eg= 1.41 eV (GaAs)
Extrinsic semiconductor: N and P -type semiconductor
The basic symbol of p-n junction diode
UNBIASED PN-JUNCTION
• When a PN-junction diode is not connected with any external supply it is called
as unbiased. When in an unbiased position there is always a barrier present in
the p-n junction.
• When a diode is Zero (Unbiased) Biased no external energy source is applied
and a natural Potential Barrier is developed across a depletion layer.
• The potential difference required for the electrons to be passed across the electric
field is called the potential barrier.
• There is a very thin region called the depletion region in the middle. In this
region, all the holes and the electrons from both sides combine together, and
hence only ions remain.
• Once equilibrium is attained no net current will flow through it. because
diffusion current becomes equal to drift current, hence diode is at equilibrium.
• The electric field establishes potential difference Vo at the junction, which act as
a barrier for majority charge carriers to cross the junction.
• The oppositely charged ions produces electric field E at the junction directed as
shown in fig.
DRIFT & DIFFUSION CURRENT
DRIFT CURRENT
Biasing
Connecting a p-n junction to an external DC voltage source is called biasing.
1. Forward biasing 2. Reverse biasing
V-I characteristics of PN junction diode
Applications of P-N Junction Diode

•P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light
when the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.
•It can be used as a solar cell.
•When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.
•It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in
varactors.

• PN diode offer a number of advantages such as voltage regulation, signal clipping,

and low cost.
• However, their power rating is relatively low and they are prone to thermal runaway,
making them unsuitable for high-power applications.
• Low Efficiency
• Diodes can be damaged by heat
Zener Effect
The Zener effect is a type of electrical breakdown that occurs in a reverse-biased PN
junction when the electric field enables tunnelling of electrons from the valence to the
conduction band of a semiconductor, leading to a large number of free minority
carriers which suddenly increase the reverse current. The Zener effect is best-known
for its use in the appropriately-named Zener diode.
Zener Diode
What is zener diode?
A zener diode is a special type of device designed to operate in the zener breakdown
region. Therefore, zener diodes allow more electric current than the normal p-n
junction diodes. A zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device designed to
operate in the reverse breakdown region. Zener diode is heavily doped than the
normal p-n junction diode. Hence, it has very thin depletion region. Zener diode
allows electric current in forward direction like a normal diode but also allows
electric current in the reverse direction if the applied reverse voltage is greater than
the zener voltage. Zener diode is always connected in reverse direction because it is
specifically designed to work in reverse direction.
Zener diode definition
A zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device
designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region. The
breakdown voltage of a zener diode is carefully set by
controlling the doping level during manufacture.
The name zener diode was named after the American
physicist Clarance Melvin Zener who discovered the zener
effect. Zener diodes are the basic building blocks of
electronic circuits. They are widely used in all kinds of
electronic
Breakdown equipments.
in zener diodeZener diodes are mainly used to
protect electronic
There are two typescircuits frombreakdown
of reverse over voltage.
regions in a zener
diode:
• avalanche breakdown and
• zener breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown

• The avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and zener

diodes at high reverse voltage. When high reverse voltage is applied to
the p-n junction diode, the free electrons (minority carriers) gains
large amount of energy and accelerated to greater velocities.
• The free electrons moving at high speed will collides with
the atoms and knock off more electrons. These electrons are again
accelerated and collide with other atoms. Because of this continuous
collision with the atoms, a large number of free electrons are
generated. As a result, electric current in the diode increases rapidly.
This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroys the
normal diode. However, avalanche diodes may not be destroyed because
they are carefully designed to operate in avalanche breakdown region.
Avalanche breakdown occurs in zener diodes with zener voltage (V z)
greater than 6V.
Fig: avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown
The zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diodes
because of their narrow depletion region. When reverse biased
voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow depletion
region generates strong electric field. When reverse biased
voltage applied to the diode reaches close to zener voltage, the
electric field in the depletion region is strong enough to pull
electrons from their valence band. The valence electrons which
gains sufficient energy from the strong electric field of depletion
region will breaks bonding with the parent atom. The valance
electrons which break bonding with parent atom will become
free electrons. This free electrons carry electric current from one
place to another place. At zener breakdown region, a small
increase in voltage will rapidly increases the electric current.
•Zener breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage whereas
avalanche breakdown occurs at high reverse voltage.
•Zener breakdown occurs in zener diodes because they have very
thin depletion region.
Fig: Zener breakdown
Symbol of zener diode
• The symbol of zener diode is shown in below figure. Zener
diode consists of two terminals: cathode and anode.
• In zener diode, electric current flows from both anode to
cathode and cathode to anode.
• The symbol of zener diode is similar to the normal p-n
junction diode, but with bend edges on the vertical bar.
VI characteristics of zener diode
V-I characteristics of a Zener Diode can be studied under the following two headings,
Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the forward characteristics of
any normal diode. It is clearly evident from the above diagram in the first quadrant that
the VI forward characteristics are similar to other P-N junction diodes.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through the Zener diode.
This current is because of the electrons which are thermally generated in the Zener
diode. As we keep increasing the reverse voltage at any particular value of reverse
voltage the reverse current increases suddenly at the breakdown point this voltage is
called Zener Voltage and is represented as Vz.
Advantages of zener diode
•Power dissipation capacity is very high
•High accuracy
•Small size
•Low cost
Disadvantages of zener diode
•Power rating is limited
•Can’t handle high power applications
•Not suitable to use in power supplies
Applications of zener diode
•It is normally used as voltage reference
•Zener diodes are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
•Zener diodes are used in switching operations
•Zener diodes are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
•Zener diodes are used in various protection circuits
•Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
•Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection
•Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits
 TRANSISTORS
• A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch or
gate for signals.
• Transistor, semiconductor device for amplifying, controlling, and generating electrical signals. Transistors are the
active components of integrated circuits, or “microchips.
Development of transistors
• The transistor was invented in 1947–48 by three American physicists, John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain,
and William B. Shockley, at the American Telephone and Telegraph Company’s Bell Laboratories.
• During the 1960s and ’70s, transistors were incorporated into integrated circuits, in which a multitude of
components (e.g., diodes, resistors, and capacitors) are formed on a single “chip” of semiconductor material.

What is a Transistor?
A transistor is an electronic component that is used in circuits to either amplify or switch electrical signals or power,
allowing it to be used in a wide array of electronic devices. A transistor consists of two PN diodes connected back to
back. It has three terminals namely emitter, base and collector. The basic idea behind a transistor is that it lets you
control the flow of current through one channel by varying the intensity of a much smaller current that’s flowing
through a second channel.
A transistor is a semiconductor device with three terminals, capable of amplification and rectification.
Terminals of Transistor

• a transistor is composed of three terminals: emitter, collector, and base

• A transistor is a semiconductor device that contains three regions separated by two distinct PN junctions. The two
junctions are EB junction and CB junctions.
• The central region is called base.
• The two outer regions are called emitter and collector.
• There are two types of charge carriers, electrons and holes hence transistor is called bipolar transistor.
• Transistor can be viewed as two PN junction diodes arranged back-to-back with base being common to both the diodes.
• As soon as the two junctions are formed, majority charge carriers diffuse and form two depletion layers. Depletion layer
is narrow at EB junction and wide at CB junction
FUNCTIONS OF THREE REGIONS IN TRANSISTOR:

Biasing of transistor
EXPLAIN WHY:
Classification Of Transistors
Constructional Details of a Transistor
The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes
back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the three
semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of transistors.
They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two P types and the other is a
P-type material between two N-types respectively.
The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea
discussed above.

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector terminals.
They have their functionality as discussed below.
Emitter
•The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
•This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number
of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
•As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
•This is simply indicated with the letter E.
Base
•The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
•This is thin and lightly doped.
•Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
•This is indicated by the letter B.
Collector
•The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
•Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
•This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
•This is indicated by the letter C.
Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here. As
one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and likewise,
the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of both
the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply. The
figure below shows how a transistor is biased.
By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that
•The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive supply
to make the circuit Forward bias.
•The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative supply
to make the circuit Reverse bias.
• By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit
higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse
bias has to be applied at the collector junction.
• The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.
 BJT- Bipolar Junction Transistor
The bipolar junction transistor or BJT is a three-terminal semiconductor device that can act as a conductor or insulator
based on the applied input signal. And due to this property, the transistor can be used as a switch in digital electronics or
as an amplifier in analog electronics. Nowadays, the field-effect transistors are widely used in electronics applications
but still, these BJTs are quite extensively used and anyone who is interested in electronics should have some basic
knowledge of this device.

BJT: Construction and Internal Structure

Fig. Basic Structure and Symbol of Bipolar Junction Transistor (NPN Transistor)

The bipolar junction transistor has three doped regions. The emitter, base, and collector.
Based on the doping of these three regions, it is known as either NPN or PNP transistor. In the case of the NPN
transistor, both emitter and collector are doped with n-type impurity while the base is doped with a p-type impurity.
On the other end, in PNP transistor, the base is doped with N-type impurity while the collector and the emitter is
doped with a P-type impurity. The term bipolar indicates that both electrons and holes contribute to the current.
 Fig. Bipolar Junction Transistor Basic Structure (PNP
Inside the BJT, the two PN Transistor)
junctions are formed. One is between the base and emitter and the second is between the base
and the collector. It appears as if two back to back diodes are connected in series. Because when we connect two back to
back diodes then we are assuming that there is no interaction between the two diodes. But in the case of the BJT actually,
there is an interaction between these two regions.

Fig. Two PN junctions in Bipolar Junction Transistor

In the internal construction of the BJT, the emitter is heavily doped. And the function of the emitter is to supply the
electrons. The base region is lightly doped and the collector region is moderately doped. The doping concentration of
the collector region is between the emitter and the base region. Among the width of these three regions, the base region
is much narrower than the other two regions and the collector region is wider than the other two regions. Because the
job of the collector region is to collect the electrons supplied by the emitter.

Fig. Doping Concentration and Width of Three Regions in BJT

BJT: Three Regions of Operation
Depending on the biasing, the BJT can be operated in three regions.
1) Active region,
2) Cut-Off region
3) Saturation region.
In case of the active region of operation, emitter-base junction is forward biased while the collector-base junction is
reverse biased. While in case of the cut-off region, both emitter-base and the collector-base junctions are reverse biased.
And in the case of the saturation region of operation, both emitter-base and collector-base junctions are forward biased.
Whenever BJT is used for the amplification then it is used in the active region and whenever it is used as Switch then it is
used in the saturation and the cut-off region.
 Where, FB – Forward Biased, RB – Reverse Biased

Different BJT Configurations:

As mentioned earlier, when BJT is used for the amplification of the signal, it is operated in the active region.
And there are different ways to configure it.
•Common Emitter (CE)
•Common Base (CB)
•Common Collector (CC)
Depending on the requirement and the application, the BJT can be configured in any of the three
configurations.
Common Emitter Configuration:

In the case of the common-emitter configuration, the emitter

terminal is common between the input and the output for the AC
signal. That means in this configuration the AC input signal is
applied between the base and the emitter while the output is
measured between the collector and the emitter.

Fig. Common Emitter Configuration of BJT

Common Base Configuration:
In this (CB) configuration, for the AC signal, the base terminal
is common between the input and the output. The AC input
signal is applied between the emitter and the base terminal,
while the output is measured between the collector and the base
terminal.

Fig. Common Base Configuration

 Common Collector Configuration:

In this (CC) configuration, the base terminal is common between the input
and the output. The AC input signal is applied between the base and the
collector terminal, while the output is measured between the emitter and the
collector terminal.

Fig. Common Collector Configuration of BJT

Operation of PNP Transistor
The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in which
emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased .
• The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type material
and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very low percent of
holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current which constitutes the
base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC,
which is the hole current.
• As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills the space in
the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows through the emitter,
where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a hole by moving towards the
emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
•The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
•The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
•The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Operation of NPN Transistor
•The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through
electrons.
•The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
•The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects
the collector current.

• The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
• The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the
N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region.
There a very low percent of electrons recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides very
low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base
junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
• As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region.
This flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.
Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −
•High voltage gain.
•Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
•Most suitable for low power applications.
•Smaller and lighter in weight.
•Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
•No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
•Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.

• There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due
to lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature
dependent.
 Transistor Configurations
A Transistor has 3 terminals, the emitter, the base and the collector. Using these 3 terminals
the transistor can be connected in a circuit with one terminal common to both input and
output in a 3 different possible configurations.
The three types of configurations are Common Base, Common Emitter and Common
Collector configurations. In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased.
Common Base (CB) Configuration
The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both input and
output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and PNP transistors is as
shown in the following figure.
 • For the sake of understanding, let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the
emitter voltage is applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal
repel the emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to
contribute collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout this.
• In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output current is
the collector current IC.
Current Amplification Factor α

Expression for Collector current: Along with the emitter current flowing, there is some
amount of base current IB which flows through the base terminal due to electron hole
recombination. As collector-base junction is reverse biased, there is another current which is
flown due to minority charge carriers. This is the leakage current which can be understood
as Ileakage. This is due to minority charge carriers and hence very small.
Characteristics of CB configuration
Common Emitter (CE)Configuration: The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common
terminal for both input and output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and PNP
transistors is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse biased.
The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input current is the base current IB and the
output current is the collector current IC here.
Hence, the current gain in Common Emitter connection is very high. This is the reason
this circuit connection is mostly used in all transistor applications.
Characteristics of CE Configuration
Common Collector (CC) Configuration
The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for both input
and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both NPN and PNP transistors
is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector
junction is reverse biased. The flow of electrons is controlled in the same manner. The input
current is the base current IB and the output current is the emitter current IE here.
Current Amplification Factor γ

•The current gain in CC configuration is same as in CE configuration.

•The voltage gain in CC configuration is always less than 1.
Characteristics of CC Configuration
•This configuration provides current gain but no voltage gain.
•In CC configuration, the input resistance is high and the output resistance is low.
•The voltage gain provided by this circuit is less than 1.
•The sum of collector current and base current equals emitter current.
•The input and output signals are in phase.
•This configuration works as non-inverting amplifier output.
•This circuit is mostly used for impedance matching. That means, to drive a low impedance
load from a high impedance source.
 Transistor Regions of Operation
The DC supply is provided for the operation of a transistor. This DC supply is given to the two
PN junctions of a transistor which influences the actions of majority carriers in these emitter
and collector junctions.
The junctions are forward biased and reverse biased based on our requirement. Forward
biased is the condition where a positive voltage is applied to the p-type and negative voltage is
applied to the n-type material. Reverse biased is the condition where a positive voltage is
applied to the n-type and negative voltage is applied to the p-type material.
Transistor biasing
The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing. Either forward or reverse
biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor. These biasing methods
make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions such as Active region,
Saturation region, Cutoff region and Inverse active region seldom used.

Among these regions, Inverse active region, which is just the inverse of active region, is not
suitable for any applications and hence not used.
Active region
This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called as linear region.
A transistor while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.
the transistor operates well in active region and hence it is also called as linear region.
Saturation region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as a closed switch. The transistor has the
effect of its collector and Emitter being shorted. The collector and Emitter currents are
maximum in this mode of operation.
The figure below shows a transistor working in saturation region.

The transistor operates in saturation region when both the

emitter and collector junctions are forward biased. As it is
understood that, in the saturation region the transistor tends
to behave as a closed switch, we can say that,
Cutoff region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an open switch. The transistor has the
effect of its collector and base being opened. The collector, emitter and base currents are all
zero in this mode of operation.
The following figure shows a transistor working in cutoff region.

The transistor operates in cutoff region when both the

emitter and collector junctions are reverse biased. As in
cutoff region, the collector current, emitter current and base
currents are nil, we can write as
Small Signal CE Amplifier
•Small Signal Amplifiers are also known as Voltage Amplifiers.
•Voltage Amplifiers have 3 main properties, Input Resistance, Output Resistance and Gain.
•The Gain of a small signal amplifier is the amount by which the amplifier “Amplifies” the input signal.
•Gain is a ratio of output divided by input, therefore it has no units but is given the symbol (A) with the most
common types of transistor gain being, Voltage Gain (Av), Current Gain (Ai) and Power Gain (Ap)
•The power Gain of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels or simply dB.
•In order to amplify all of the input signal distortion free in a Class A type amplifier, DC Base Biasing is required.
•DC Bias sets the Q-point of the amplifier half way along the load line.
•This DC Base biasing means that the amplifier consumes power even if there is no input signal present.
•The transistor amplifier is non-linear and an incorrect bias setting will produce large amounts of distortion to the
output waveform.
•Too large an input signal will produce large amounts of distortion due to clipping, which is also a form of
amplitude distortion.
•Incorrect positioning of the Q-point on the load line will produce either Saturation Clipping or Cut-off Clipping.
•The Common Emitter Amplifier configuration is the most common form of all the general purpose voltage
amplifier circuit using a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
•The Common Source Amplifier configuration is the most common form of all the general purpose voltage
amplifier circuit using a Junction Field Effect Transistor.
 Accordingly, a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following ways.
Types of Transistor Configurations •Common base (CB) configuration (or) Grounded base configuration,
•Common emitter (CE) configuration (or) Grounded emitter configuration.
•Common collector (CC) configuration (or) Grounded collector configuration.

•Common emitter configuration: Offers high voltage gain and moderate

current gain, commonly used for amplification applications.
•Common base configuration: Provides high current gain and moderate
voltage gain, suitable for impedance matching and RF amplifier circuits.
•Common collector configuration: Offers high voltage gain and unity
current gain, commonly used for impedance buffering and voltage
amplification.
Common Base (CB) configuration (or) Grounded base configuration
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the emitter and base, and output is taken from the collector and
base. Here, the base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name common base
connection.
In figure (a) the common base npn transistor circuit is shown whereas figure (b) shows the common base pnp
transistor circuit.

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Base

Configuration
Fig: Input Characteristics of Common Base Configuration
Rin = VEB / IE (when VCB is constant) Rout = VCB / IC (when IE is constant)
 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the base and emitter, and output is taken from the collector
and emitter. Here, the emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name
common emitter connection. Figure (a) shows a common emitter npn transistor circuit whereas Figure (b) shows
common emitter pnp transistor circuit.

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration

Fig: Input and Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration

Rin = VBE/IB (when VCE is at constant)

Rout = VCE/IC (when IB is at constant)

Common Collector (CC) Configuration
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between the base and collector while output is taken between the emitter and
collector. Here, the collector of the transistor is common to input and output circuits and hence the name common collector
connection. Figure (a) shows a common collector n-p-n transistor circuit where as Figure (b) shows a common collector p-
n-p circuit.

Fig: Common Collector Configuration

Input and Output Characteristics of Common Collector Configuration
Fig: Input and Output Characteristics of Common Collector Configuration
Comparison of the performance of Characteristics of CB, CE, and CC Configurations