Chapter 7

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

METHODS
• The discussion on primary data collection
methods is organized around four principal
methods of primary data collection:
interviews, observation, administering
questionnaires, and experiments. The primary
data collection decision is interrelated with
the other steps in the research process
•INTERVIEWS
• INTERVIEWS
• A widely used method of collecting data in business research is
to interview respondents to obtain information on an issue of
interest. An interview is a guided, purposeful conversation
between two or more people.

• There are many different types of interviews.

Individual or group interviews may be
unstructured or structured, and conducted face
to face, by telephone, or online.
 Unstructured and structured interviews

• Unstructured interviews
• Unstructured interviews are so labeled because
the interviewer does not enter the interview
setting with a planned sequence of questions
to be asked of the respondent. A possible
objective of an unstructured interview is to
bring some preliminary issues to the surface so
that the researcher can determine what factors
need further in‐depth investigation.
• What do you like about working here?
• If you were to tell me which aspects of your job you
like and which you do not, what would they be?
• Tell me something about the reward systems in this
place.
• If you were offered a similar job elsewhere, how
willing would you be to take it and why?
• If I were to seek employment here and request you
to describe your unit to me as a newcomer, what
would you say??
• Structured interviews
• Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the
outset what information is needed.
• The content of a structured interview can be prepared in advance,
and usually consists of:
• ● an introduction: the interviewer introduces him‐ or herself, the
purpose of the interview, assures confidentiality, asks permission to
record the interview;
• ● a set of topics (usually questions) in a logical order: first “warm‐up”
questions (which are easy to answer and non‐threatening) and then
the main questions covering the purpose of the interview;
• ● suggestions for probing questions (Box 7.2) : follow‐up questions
that are used when the first answer is unclear or incomplete, the
interviewer does not fully understand the answer, or in any other case
where the interviewer requires more specific or in‐depth information.
• Review of unstructured and structured interviews
• The main purpose of the unstructured interview is to explore and
probe into the several factors in the situation that might be central
to the broad problem area. During this process it might become
evident that the problem, as identified by the client, is but a
symptom of a more serious and deep‐rooted problem. Conducting
unstructured interviews with many people could result in the
identification of several critical factors in the situation.
• These would then be pursued further during structured interviews
for eliciting more in‐depth information on them. This helps identify
the critical problem as well as ways of solving it. In applied
research, a tentative theory of the factors contributing to the
problem is often conceptualized on the basis of the information
obtained from unstructured and structured interviews.
• Training interviewers
• When several long interviews are to be conducted, it
is often not feasible for one individual to conduct all
the interviews. A team of trained interviewers then
becomes necessary. Interviewers have to be
thoroughly briefed about the research and trained in
how to start an interview, how to proceed with the
questions, how to motivate respondents to answer,
what to look for in the answers, and how to close an
interview. They also need to be instructed about
taking notes and coding the interview responses.
The tips for interviewing, discussed later, should
become a part of their repertoire for interviewing.
 Some tips to follow when interviewing
• The information obtained during the interviews should be as free as
possible of bias. Bias refers to errors or inaccuracies in the data collected.
Bias could be introduced by the interviewer, the interviewee, or the
situation.
• Establishing credibility and rapport, and motivating individuals to respond
• The projection of professionalism, enthusiasm, and confidence is
important for the interviewer. For instance, a manager hiring outside
researchers to deal with a problem within an organization would be
interested in assessing their abilities and personality predispositions.
• Researchers must establish rapport with, and gain the confidence and
approval of, the hiring client before they can even start their work in the
organization. Knowledge, skills, ability, confidence, articulateness, and
enthusiasm are therefore qualities a researcher must demonstrate in
order to establish credibility with the hiring organization and its members.
• Establishing credibility as able researchers is important for
the success of the research project. Researchers need to
establish rapport with the respondents and motivate them
to give responses relatively free from bias by allaying
whatever suspicions, fears, anxieties, and concerns they
may have about the research and its consequences. This
can be accomplished by being sincere, pleasant, and
nonevaluative. While interviewing, the researcher has to
ask broad questions initially and then narrow them down to
specific areas, ask questions in an unbiased way, offer
clarification when needed, and help respondents to think
through difficult issues. The responses should be
transcribed immediately and should not be trusted to
memory and later recall.
 The questioning technique
• Funneling
• Unbiased questions
• Clarifying issues
• Helping the respondent to think through issues
• Taking notes
 Face-to-face and telephone interviews
• Interviews can be conducted either face to face or over the
telephone. They may also be computer‐assisted. Although most
unstructured interviews in business research are conducted face
to face, structured interviews may be either face to face or
through the medium of the telephone, depending on the level of
complexity of the issues involved, the likely duration of the
interview, the convenience of both parties, and the geographical
area covered by the survey. Telephone interviews are best suited
when information from a large number of respondents spread
over a wide geographic area is to be obtained quickly, and the
likely duration of each interview is, say, ten minutes or less. Many
market surveys, for instance, are conducted through structured
telephone interviews. In addition, computer‐assisted telephone
interviews (CATI) are also possible, and easy to manage.
 Computer-assisted interviewing

• With computer‐assisted interviews (CAI) questions are

flashed onto the computer screen and interviewers
can enter the answers of the respondents directly into
the computer. The accuracy of data collection is
considerably enhanced since the software can be
programmed to flag the “offbase” or “out‐of‐range”
responses. CAI software also prevents interviewers
from asking the wrong questions or in the wrong
sequence since the questions are automatically
flashed to the respondent in an ordered sequence.
This, to some extent, eliminates interviewer‐induced
bias.
 Group interviews

• Interviews may be conducted on an individual

basis, but also on a group basis, where the
interviewer puts open questions to a group of
participants. The term “focus group” is used
for a particular type of group interview, where
the topic is clearly defined and there is a focus
on facilitating discussion between participants
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS

• Personal or face‐to‐face interviews

• Advantages
• Can establish rapport and motivate respondents.
• Can clarify the questions, clear doubts, add new questions.
• Can read nonverbal cues.
• Can use visual aids to clarify points.
• Rich data can be obtained.
• CAPI can be used and responses entered in a portable
computer
• Personal or face‐to‐face interviews
Disadvantages
• Takes personal time.
• Costs more when a wide geographic region is
covered.
• Respondents may be concerned about
• confidentiality of information given.
• Interviewers need to be trained.
• Can introduce interviewer bias.
• Telephone interviews
Advantages
• Less costly and speedier than personal
interviews.
• Can reach a wide geographic area.
• Greater anonymity than personal interviews.
• Can be done using CATI.
Telephone interviews •
• Disadvantages
• Nonverbal cues cannot be read.
• Interviews will have to be kept short.
• Obsolete telephone numbers could be
contacted, and unlisted ones omitted from the
sample.
• Respondents can terminate the interview at any
time.