Concept of Quality

Various Charts As Visual Control

1.)Breakdown Chart
2.)Production Chart
3.)Quality Defect
4.)Safety
5.)Training
6.)Any Announcement
7.)Skill Matrix
8.)Working Hours including over time
Various Charts As Visual Control
Various Charts As Visual Control
Various Charts As Visual Control
Various Charts As Visual Control
Various Charts As Visual Control
Various Charts As Visual Control
Various Charts As Visual Control
Various Charts As Visual Control
 Meaning of Quality
 Total Quality Management
 Quality Improvement and Role of
Employees
 Strategic Implications of TQM
 Six Sigma
Meaning of Quality
Dimensions of Quality: Manufactured
Products
 Performance
 basic operating characteristics of a product; CNG car
as low budget running cost
 Features
 “extra” items added to basic features, such as a
stereo CD or leather seat covers or Reverse camera
 Reliability
 probability that a product will operate properly
within an expected time frame; that is, a TV will
work without repair for about seven years
 Dimensions of Quality: Manufactured
Products
 Conformance
 degree to which a product meets pre–established standards– SUV (Sports Utility
Vehicle)– High ground clearance, 4 wheel drive etc
 Durability
 how long product lasts before replacement
 Serviceability
 ease of getting repairs, speed of repairs, courtesy and competence of repair person
Dimensions of Quality: Manufactured
Products

DUCATI

 Aesthetics
 how a product looks, feels, sounds,
smells, or tastes
 Safety
 assurance that customer will not suffer injury or harm
from a product; an especially important consideration for
automobiles – Door bars, Bumper bars, Air bags etc
 Perceptions
 subjective perceptions based on brand name, advertising, and the
like
 Dimensions of Quality: Service

 Time and Timeliness

 How long must a customer wait for service, and is it completed on time?
 Blue dart delivery always in time.
 Completeness:
 Is everything customer asked for provided?
 Is a mail order from a catalogue company
complete when delivered? From RFQ to dispatch in sheet metal industry
 Dimensions of Quality: Service

 Courtesy:
 How are customers treated by employees?
 Are catalogue phone operators nice and are
their voices pleasant?
 Consistency
 Is the same level of service provided to each
customer each time?
 Is your newspaper delivered on time every
morning?
Dimensions of Quality: Service
 Quality Management Tools

Quality Management tools help employees identify the common

problems which are occurring repeatedly and also their root causes

Following are the quality management tools:

Check List
Pareto Chart

A Pareto Chart is a graph that indicates the

frequency of defects, as well as their cumulative
impact. Pareto Charts are useful to find the defects
to prioritize in order to observe the greatest overall
improvement
 The Cause and Effect Diagram

A cause-effect diagram is a visual tool used

to logically organize possible
causes for a specific problem or effect by
graphically displaying them in
increasing detail, suggesting causal
relationships among theories. ... The
ideas generated during a brainstorming or
affinity process are used to
populate the diagram
 Histogram

The histogram is a popular

graphing tool. It is used to
summarize discrete or
continuous data that are
measured on an interval scale. It
is often used to illustrate
the major features of the
distribution of the data in a
convenient form
 Scatter Diagram

Scatter plots' primary uses are to

observe and show relationships
between two numeric variables. The
dots in a scatter plot not only report the
values of individual data points, but
also patterns when the data are taken as
a whole . ... A scatter plot can also be
useful for identifying other patterns in
data
Graphs
 What is Kaizen ? - Five S of Kaizen
Kaizen is defined as a continuous effort by each and every employee (from
the CEO to field staff) to ensure improvement of all processes and systems
of a particular organization

Kaizen means “continuous improvement of processes and functions of an

organization through change
 Five S of Kaizen

Let us understand the five S in Detail:

1.SEIRI - SEIRI stands for Sort Out. According to Seiri, employees should sort out and
organize things well. Label the items as “Necessary”, ”Critical”, ”Most Important”, “Not
needed now”, “Useless and so on. Throw what all is useless. Keep aside what all is not
needed at the moment. Items which are critical and most important should be kept at a
safe place.
2.SEITION - Seition means to Organize. Research says that employees waste half of their
precious time searching for items and important documents. Every item should have its
own space and must be kept at its place only.
3.SEISO - The word “SEISO” means shine the workplace. The workplace ought to be kept
clean. De-clutter your workstation. Necessary documents should be kept in proper folders
and files. Use cabinets and drawers to store your items.
4.SEIKETSU-SEIKETSU refers to Standardization. Every organization needs to have certain
standard rules and set policies to ensure superior quality.
5.SHITSUKE or Self Discipline - Employees need to respect organization’s policies and
adhere to rules and regulations. Self discipline is essential. Do not attend office in casuals.
Follow work procedures and do not forget to carry your identity cards to work. It gives you
a sense of pride and respect for the organization.
 Cost of Quality

 Cost of Achieving Good Quality

 Prevention costs --- TATA INDICA –Axle faulty ,leading to tyre wear out
 costs incurred during product design
 Appraisal costs – Tyre change cost
 costs of measuring, testing, and analyzing
 Cost of Poor Quality
 Internal failure costs
 include scrap, rework, process failure, downtime, and price reductions
 External failure costs
 include complaints, returns, warranty claims, liability, and lost sales
 Prevention Costs

 Quality  Training costs

planning costs  costs of developing and
 costs of developing and putting on quality training
implementing quality programs for employees
management program and management
 Product-  Information costs
design costs  costs of acquiring and
 costs of designing maintaining data related to
products with quality quality, and development of
characteristics reports on quality
 Process costs performance
 costs expended to make
sure productive process
conforms to quality
specifications
 Appraisal Costs

 Inspection and testing

 costs of testing and inspecting materials, parts, and
product at various stages and at the end of a process
 Test equipment costs
 costs of maintaining equipment used in testing
quality characteristics of products
 Operator costs
 costs of time spent by operators to gather data for
testing product quality, to make equipment adjustments
to maintain quality, and to stop work to assess quality
 Internal Failure Costs

 Scrap costs  Process downtime costs

 costs of poor-quality
products that must be
 costs of shutting down
discarded, including labor, productive process to fix
material, and indirect costs problem
 Rework costs  Price-downgrading costs
 costs of fixing defective
products to conform to
 costs of discounting poor-
quality specifications quality products—that is,
 Process selling products as
“seconds”
failure costs
 costs of determining why
production process is
producing poor-quality
products
 External Failure Costs

 Customer  Product liability costs

complaint costs  litigation costs
 costs of investigating and resulting from product
satisfactorily responding to a liability and customer
customer complaint resulting injury
from a poor-quality product
 Lost sales costs
 Product return  costs incurred because
costs customers are
 costs of handling and replacing dissatisfied with poor
poor-quality products returned by quality products and
customer do not make
 Warranty claims additional purchases
costs
 costs of complying with
product warranties
Measuring and Reporting Quality Costs

 Index numbers
 ratios that measure quality costs against a
base value
 labor index
 ratio of quality cost to labor hours
 cost index
 ratio of quality cost to manufacturing cost
 sales index
 ratio of quality cost to sales
 production index
 ratio of quality cost to units of final product
Quality–Cost Relationship

 Cost of quality
 Difference between price of
nonconformance and conformance
 Cost of doing things wrong
 20 to 35% of revenues
 Cost of doing things right
 3 to 4% of revenues
 Profitability
 In the long run, quality is free
 Total Quality Management

 Commitment to quality throughout organization

 Principles of TQM
 Customer-oriented
 Leadership
 Strategic planning
 Employee responsibility
 Continuous improvement
 Cooperation
 Statistical methods
 Training and education
Total Quality management is defined as a continuous effort by the
management as well as employees of a particular organization to ensure
long term customer loyalty and customer satisfaction.

W. Edwards Deming, Joseph M. Juran, and Armand V. Feigenbaum jointly

developed the concept of total quality management. Total Quality management
originated in the manufacturing sector, but can be applied to almost all
organizations.
Total quality management ensures that every single employee is working
towards the improvement of work culture, processes, services, systems and
so on to ensure long term success.
Total Quality management can be divided into four categories:
§Plan
§Do
§Check
§Act
Also referred to as PDCA cycle.
 Importance of Quality Management
“Quality management” ensures superior quality products and services

Quality management is essential for customer satisfaction which

eventually leads to customer loyalty

Quality management tools help an organization to design and create a product

which the customer actually wants and desires.

Quality Management ensures increased revenues and higher

productivity for the organization

Quality management helps organizations to reduce waste and

inventory
 Total Quality Management Models

Following are the various models of total quality management:

§Deming Application Prize
§Malcolm Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence
§European Foundation for Quality Management, and
§ISO quality management standards
Strategic Implications of TQM

 Strong leadership
 Goals, vision, or mission
 Operational plans and policies
 Mechanism for feedback
Quality Circle
 Six Sigma

 A process for developing and

delivering near perfect products and
services
 Measure of how much
a process deviates from perfection
 3.4 defects per million
opportunities
 Champion
 an executive responsible for project
success
Following are the main elements of Six Sigma:
§Teamwork
§Personal Discipline
§Improved Morale
§Quality Circles
§Suggestions for Improvement
According to Six Sigma any process which does not lead to
customer satisfaction is referred to as a defect and has to be
eliminated from the system to ensure superior quality of
products and services. Every organization strives hard to
maintain excellent quality of its brand and the process of six
sigma ensures the same by removing various defects and errors
which come in the way of customer satisfaction.
The process of Six Sigma originated in manufacturing processes
but now it finds its use in other businesses as well. Proper
budgets and resources need to be allocated for the
implementation of Six Sigma in organizations.
Following are the two Six Sigma methods:
§DMAIC
§DMADV
DMAIC focuses on improving existing business practices. DMADV,
on the other hand focuses on creating new strategies and
policies.
DMAIC has Five Phases
D - Define the Problem. In the first phase, various problems
which need to be addressed to are clearly defined. Feedbacks are
taken from customers as to what they feel about a particular
product or service. Feedbacks are carefully monitored to
understand problem areas and their root causes.
M - Measure and find out the key points of the current
process. Once the problem is identified, employees collect
relevant data which would give an insight into current processes.
A - Analyze the data. The information collected in the second
stage is thoroughly verified. The root cause of the defects are
carefully studied and investigated as to find out how they are
affecting the entire process.
I - Improve the current processes based on the research and
analysis done in the previous stage. Efforts are made to create
new projects which would ensure superior quality.
C - Control the processes so that they do not lead to defects.
DMADV Method
D - Design strategies and processes which ensure hundred
percent customer satisfaction.
M - Measure and identify parameters that are important for
quality.
A - Analyze and develop high level alternatives to ensure
superior quality.
D - Design details and processes.
V - Verify various processes and finally implement the same.
 Quality Management and
Productivity
 Productivity
 ratio of output to input
 Yield: a measure of productivity

Yield=(total input)(% good units) + (total input)(1-%good units)(% reworked)

Product Cost
 Quality–Productivity Ratio

QPR
 productivity index that includes productivity and
quality costs

(non-defective units)
QPR =
(input) (processing cost) + (defective units) (reworked cost)
 SAMPLING
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number
of observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample
from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may
include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a
larger population for measurement. The sample should be representative of the
population to ensure that we can generalise the findings from the research sample to the
population as a whole.

1.Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a

selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members
have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter. Example—
For a vacancy in an Organization– Engg. Degree+ MBA Marketing is required

1.Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members

for research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process.
This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be
included in a sample.
Example – Here, the random choice is of researcher to pick candidates from population
without pre defined criteria.
 There are four types of probability sampling
techniques:

•Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in
saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of
obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly,
merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of a
sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting
team building activities,(Dy Managers onwards) it is highly likely that they would prefer
picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal
opportunity of being selected.

•Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes
it very simple for a survey creator to derive effective inference from the feedback.
For example- Covid cases across country by doing analysis state wise.
•Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the selection of a starting point for
the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling
method has a predefined range, and hence this sampling technique is the least time-
consuming.

•Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher
divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each
group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to
different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual family
income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000,
etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to
different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which
ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that would bear fruitful results.

Analysis by Car Companies– Say Mahindra for SUV 700--- Price Tag – 18 Lacks & SUV Likers
 Types of non-probability sampling with examples
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback
based on a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed
selection process. In most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable
sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired target population.
But, there are situations such as the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more useful than the
other type.

Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a
better manner:
•Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying
customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience sampling, because of the
researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority
to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-
probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In
situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is
used.
For example, startups (Waterless Car Wash) and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to
distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall
entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly. Or same action in your residential Society.
•Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the
discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the purpose of the study, along with
the understanding of the target audience.

Example-Selecting members for a competition like quiz, contest to represent a school.

Some smart, Intelligent and quick answer students from class
•Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelter
less people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can
track a few categories to interview and derive results. Researchers also implement this
sampling method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—
for example, surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily
respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know or
volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.

•Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique
happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific
attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a
rapid method of collecting samples.
Example of Quota Sampling
A researcher wants to survey individuals about what smartphone brand they prefer
to use. He/she considers a sample size of 500 respondents. Also, he/she is only
interested in surveying ten states in Inda. Here’s how the researcher can divide the
population by quotas:
•Gender: 250 males and 250 females
•Age: 100 respondents each between the ages of 16-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and
51+
•Employment status: 350 employed and 150 unemployed people.
• (Researchers apply further nested quotas . For eg, out of the 150
unemployed people, 100 must be students.)
•Location: 50 responses per state
Depending on the type of research, the researcher can apply quotas based on the
sampling frame. It is not necessary for the researcher to divide the quotas equally.
He/she divides the quotas as per his/her need (as shown in the example where the
researcher interviews 350 employed and only 150 unemployed individuals). Random
sampling can be conducted to reach out to the respondents.
 TYPES OF INSPECTION
100 Percent Inspection means every part is inspected – in other words all parts of a particular batch
are tested against predetermined tolerances of defined features

Meaning of Sampling Inspection:

Sampling inspection is a technique to determine whether a lot or population should be rejected or
accepted on the basis of the number of defective parts found in a random sample drawn from the
lot. If the number of defective parts exceeds a predefined level, the lot is rejected.
Advantages of Sampling Inspection:
(a) It involves less amount of inspection to achieve a pre-decided degree of certainty about the
quality.
(b) It consumes less time, and is less expensive.
(c) Fatigue and boredom incurred by the inspectors is much less, hence their operating efficiency
remains high,
(d) It is more accurate because in 100 percent inspection, errors get introduced because of the
fatigue and boredom incurred by the inspectors due to large inspection work of repetitive nature.
(e) Since fewer pieces are inspected, no damage is done to the remaining pieces of the lot as they are
not handled.
(f) In certain cases where the components are to be inspected by destructive testing or where a
powder is to be chemically analysed, 100 percent inspection can never be employed.
(g) Rejection of a complete batch on the basis of a sample decidedly pressurizes for improvements in
quality.
Classification of Sampling Inspection:
Sampling inspection may be classified as follows:

A. (Acceptance) Sampling Inspection by Attributes:

Attribute (Yes or No) inspection is used to differentiate between a defective and
a non-defective part and the part is rejected or accepted without using quantitative measures.
For example, if out of a sample taken from a lot a predefined number of bullets fire, the lot is
accepted otherwise rejected. Attribute inspection is very important and also very common.
The parts can be inspected at an isolated calm place away from the production floor.
Steps Involved in Sampling Inspection by Attributes:
1. Select a Sampling Plan:
The first thing is to fix the proportion defective which will decide whether to accept a lot or to reject it.
A purchaser always thinks about the cost of making a wrong decision, i.e., the loss he will have to bear
in case he accepts a bad lot on the basis of a good sample. By changing the parameters (a and n) of an
O.C. curve he can easily choose the most appropriate curve for him, the one which involves minimum
purchaser risks.
(a) Manufacturer’s Risk:
It is the small probability of a batch being good or even better than AQ.L. but yielding a bad sample
and thus getting rejected. In other words it is the probability of rejecting a good lot which otherwise
would have been accepted.
(b) Purchaser’s Risk:
It is the probability of a lot being bad or even worse than the limiting quality but yielding a good
sample and thus getting accepted. In other words it is the probability of a defective batch being
accepted which otherwise would have been rejected.
(c) Acceptable Quality Level (A.Q.L.):
It indicates a small proportion of bad components in a lot such that the lots having less than this
proportion of bad components have a high probability of getting accepted.
(d) Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (L.T.P.D.) or Limiting Quality (L.Q):
It indicates a small proportion of bad components somewhat larger than Acceptable Quality
level in a lot such that the lots having more than this proportion of defective components
have a small probability of getting accepted.
If a batch contains N pieces and a sample containing n of them is taken out, the batch will be
accepted if the number of defective pieces (d) do not exceed the acceptance number (a). If
the batch size is large as compared to sample size, which is commonly the situation in
industrial applications, the operating characteristic curve is independent of the batch size.
However (n) and (a) influence the shape of an O.C. curve. As n or a both increase, the O.C.
curve shifts inside towards K (See Fig. 8.13). The dotted inner curve is for a greater value of n
as compared to that of the outer O.C. curve.
 Quality Gurus and their Key Contributions

Philip Crosby:
The Four Absolutes of Quality Management:
• Quality is conformance to requirements
•Quality prevention is preferable to quality
inspection
•Zero defects is the quality performance standard
•Quality is measured in monetary terms – the price
of non-conformance
14 Steps to Quality Improvement:
1.Management is committed to quality – and this is clear to all
2.Create quality improvement teams – with (senior) representatives
from all departments.
3.Measure processes to determine current and potential quality
issues.
4.Calculate the cost of (poor) quality
5.Raise quality awareness of all employees
6.Take action to correct quality issues
7.Monitor progress of quality improvement – establish a zero defects
committee.
8.Train employees in quality improvement
9.Hold “zero defects” days
10.Encourage employees to create their own quality improvement
goals
11.Encourage employee communication with management about
obstacles to quality
12.Recognize participants’ effort
13.Create quality councils
14.Do it all over again – quality improvement does not end
Dr. Edwards Deming
Deming’s Fourteen Obligations of Top Management
1.Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service. Allocate
resources to provide for long range needs rather than only short term profitability
2.Adopt the new philosophy. We can no longer live with commonly accepted levels
of delays, mistakes, defective materials, and defective workmanship.
3.Cease dependency on mass inspection to achieve quality. Quality is achieved by
building quality into the product in the first place.
4.End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone. The
aim is to minimize total cost, not merely initial cost. Establish long term relationship
with suppliers to develop loyalty and trust.
5.Improve constantly and forever every process for planning, production, and
service. It is management’s job to work continually on improving total system.
6.Institute training on the job for all, including management, to make better use
of every employee. New skills are required to keep up with changes in products and
processes.
7.Adopt and institute leadership aimed at helping people do a better job. Management must
ensure that immediate action taken on issues that are detrimental to quality.
8.Drive out fear so that everybody may work effectively and more
productively for the company.
9.Break down barriers between departments and staff areas. Everyone
must work together to tackle problems that may be encountered with
products or service.
10.Eliminate slogans and exhortations for the work force as they
create adversarial relationships. Also, bulk of the causes of low quality &
productivity belong to the system and lie beyond the power of the work
force.
11.Eliminate arbitrary numerical targets for the workforce and
management. Substitute aids and helpful leadership in order to achieve
continual improvement.
12.Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship. This
includes the annual appraisal of performance and Management by
Objective.
13.Encourage education. Institute a vigorous program of education
and self-improvement for everyone
14.Clearly define top management’s permanent commitment to ever
improving quality and productivity. Put everybody in the company to
work to accomplish the transformation. Support is not enough, action is
required.
Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa
•Known as father of Japanese quality control effort
•Established concept of Company Wide Quality
Control (CWQC) – participation from the top to the
bottom of an organization and from the start to the
finish of the product life cycle
•Started Quality Circles – bottom up approach –
members from within the department and solve
problems on a continuous basis
•The fishbone diagram is also called Ishikawa
diagram in his honor
•Introduced concept that the next process is your
customer
Dr. Joseph Juran
Juran’s Quality Trilogy (compared to financial management):
•Quality planning (financial budgeting) – create process that will
enable one to meet the desired goals
•Quality control (cost control) – monitor and adjust the process
•Quality improvement (profit improvement) – move the
process to a better and improved state of control through
projects
Key points of Juran’s approach to quality improvement:
•Create awareness of the need for quality improvement
•Make quality improvement everyone’s job
•Create infrastructure for quality improvement
•Train the organization in quality improvement techniques
•Review progress towards quality improvement regularly
•Recognize winning teams
•Institutionalize quality improvement by including quality
•Concentration on both external and internal customers
Dr. Walter Shewhart
• Shewhart’s control charts are widely used to monitor
processes. Problems are framed in terms of special cause
(assignable cause) and common cause (chance-cause).
•The Shewhart Cycle – PDCA Problem Solving Process:
•Plan – what changes are desirable? What data is needed?
•Do – carry out the change or test decided upon
•Check – observe the effects of the change or the test
•Act – what we learned from the change should lead to
improvement or activity
•Referred to as the “Father of Statistical Quality Control”
Deming Wheel: PDCA
Cycle

4. Act 1. Plan
Institutionalize Identify
improvement; problem and
continue develop plan
cycle. for
improvement.

3. Study/Check 2. Do
Assess plan; is Implement
it working? plan on a test
basis.

3-66
Dr. Genichi Taguchi
•The lack of quality should be measured as function of deviation
from the nominal value of the quality characteristic. Thus, quality
is best achieved by minimizing the deviation from target
(minimizing variation).
•Quality should be designed into the product and not inspected
into it. The product should be so designed that it is immune to
causes of variation.
Taguchi recommends a three-stage design process:
System Design (Stage 1):
•development of a basic functional prototype design
•determination of materials, parts and assembly system
•determination of the manufacturing process involved
Parameter Design (Stage 2):
•selecting the nominals of the system by running statistically
planned experiments (DFSS/DOE)
Tolerance Design (Stage 3):
•deals with tightening tolerances and upgrading materials
Project Management
 A project is a combination of interrelated activities to achieve a specific objective
within a schedule, budget, and quality. ... Project management is the combination of
project and management. Planning is the strong keys to make the project more effective
and well utilization of resources to achieve the goal

Characteristics of a Project:

(a) Project has a owner, who, in the private sector, can be an individual or a
company etc., in the public sector, a government undertaking or a joint sector
organisation, represent­ing a partnership between public and private sector.

(b) Project has a set objective to achieve within a distinct time, cost and technical
performance.

(c) Project is planned, managed and controlled by an assigned team the project
team planted within the owner’s organisation to achieve the objectives as per
specifications.

(d) Project, in general, is an outcome in response to environments economies and

opportunities. As an example, we find that considering the changing pattern of
modern living the domestic appliances small e.g. grinders, mixers etc., and large, e.g.
refrigerators, washing machines etc. are on ever-increasing demand. This generates
responses to avail opportunity to produce such appliances
(e) Project is an undertaking involving future activities for completion of the
project within estimates and, «s such, involves complex budgeting procedure with a
mission.

(f) Implementation of the project involves a co-ordination of works/supervisions by

project team/manager.

(g) Project involves activities to be carried out in future. As such, it has some
inherent risk and, in reality, the process of implementation may necessitate certain
changes in the plan subject to limitations and concurrence of the project owner

(h) Project involves high-skilled forecasting with sound basis for such forecasting.

(i) Projects have a start and an end a characteristic of a life cycle. The organisation
of project changes as it passes through this cycle the activities starting from—
conception stage, mounting up to the peak during implementation and, then, back
to zero level on completion and delivery of the project.
The four project parameters: time, cost, quantity and quality
The 4 Phases of the Project Management Life Cycle
•Initiation.
•Planning.
•Execution.
•Closure.