Database Systems:

Design, Implementation, and

Management
Tenth Edition

Chapter 5
Advanced Data Modeling
 Objectives

• In this chapter, students will learn:

– About the extended entity relationship (EER)
model
– How entity clusters are used to represent
multiple entities and relationships
– The characteristics of good primary keys and
how to select them
– How to use flexible solutions for special data
modeling cases

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 The Extended Entity
Relationship Model
• Result of adding more semantic constructs to
original entity relationship (ER) model
• Diagram using this model is called an EER
diagram (EERD)

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 Entity Supertypes and Subtypes

• Entity supertype
– Generic entity type related to one or more entity
subtypes
– Contains common characteristics
• Entity subtype
– Contains unique characteristics of each entity
subtype

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 Specialization Hierarchy

• Depicts arrangement of higher-level entity

supertypes and lower-level entity subtypes
• Relationships described in terms of “IS-A”
relationships
• Subtype exists only within context of supertype
• Every subtype has only one supertype to which
it is directly related
• Can have many levels of supertype/subtype
relationships
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 Inheritance
• Enables entity subtype to inherit attributes and
relationships of supertype
• All entity subtypes inherit their primary key
attribute from their supertype
• At implementation level, supertype and its
subtype(s) maintain a 1:1 relationship
• Entity subtypes inherit all relationships in which
supertype entity participates
• Lower-level subtypes inherit all attributes and
relationships from all upper-level supertypes
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 Subtype Discriminator

• Attribute in supertype entity

– Determines to which entity subtype each
supertype occurrence is related
• Default comparison condition for subtype
discriminator attribute is equality comparison
• Subtype discriminator may be based on other
comparison condition

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 Disjoint and Overlapping Constraints

• Disjoint subtypes
– Also called nonoverlapping subtypes
– Subtypes that contain unique subset of
supertype entity set
• Overlapping subtypes
– Subtypes that contain nonunique subsets of
supertype entity set

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 Completeness Constraint

• Specifies whether entity supertype occurrence

must be a member of at least one subtype
• Partial completeness
– Symbolized by a circle over a single line
– Some supertype occurrences are not members
of any subtype
• Total completeness
– Symbolized by a circle over a double line
– Every supertype occurrence must be member of
at least one subtype
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 Specialization and Generalization

• Specialization
– Identifies more specific entity subtypes from
higher-level entity supertype
– Top-down process
– Based on grouping unique characteristics and
relationships of the subtypes

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 Specialization and Generalization
(cont’d.)
• Generalization
– Identifies more generic entity supertype from
lower-level entity subtypes
– Bottom-up process
– Based on grouping common characteristics and
relationships of the subtypes

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 Entity Clustering

• “Virtual” entity type used to represent multiple

entities and relationships in ERD
• Considered “virtual” or “abstract” because it is
not actually an entity in final ERD
• Temporary entity used to represent multiple
entities and relationships
• Eliminate undesirable consequences
– Avoid display of attributes when entity clusters
are used

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 Entity Integrity:
Selecting Primary Keys
• Primary key is the most important characteristic
of an entity
– Single attribute or some combination of
attributes
• Primary key’s function is to guarantee entity
integrity
• Primary keys and foreign keys work together to
implement relationships
• Properly selecting primary key has direct
bearing on efficiency and effectiveness
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 Natural Keys and Primary Keys

• Natural key is a real-world identifier used to

uniquely identify real-world objects
– Familiar to end users and forms part of their
day-to-day business vocabulary
• Generally, data modeler uses natural identifier
as primary key of entity being modeled
• May instead use composite primary key or
surrogate key

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 Primary Key Guidelines
• Attribute that uniquely identifies entity instances
in an entity set
– Could also be combination of attributes
• Main function is to uniquely identify an entity
instance or row within a table
• Guarantee entity integrity, not to “describe” the
entity
• Primary keys and foreign keys implement
relationships among entities
– Behind the scenes, hidden from user
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 When to Use Composite Primary Keys

• Composite primary keys useful in two cases:

– As identifiers of composite entities
• In which each primary key combination is allowed
once in M:N relationship
– As identifiers of weak entities
• In which weak entity has a strong identifying
relationship with the parent entity
• Automatically provides benefit of ensuring that
there cannot be duplicate values

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 When to Use Composite Primary Keys
(cont’d.)
• When used as identifiers of weak entities
normally used to represent:
– Real-world object that is existent-dependent on
another real-world object
– Real-world object that is represented in data
model as two separate entities in strong
identifying relationship
• Dependent entity exists only when it is related
to parent entity

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 When To Use Surrogate Primary Keys

• Especially helpful when there is:

– No natural key
– Selected candidate key has embedded semantic
contents
– Selected candidate key is too long or
cumbersome

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 When To Use Surrogate Primary Keys
(cont’d.)
• If you use surrogate key:
– Ensure that candidate key of entity in question
performs properly
– Use “unique index” and “not null” constraints

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 Summary
• Extended entity relationship (EER) model adds
semantics to ER model
– Adds semantics via entity supertypes, subtypes, and
clusters
– Entity supertype is a generic entity type related to
one or more entity subtypes
• Specialization hierarchy
– Depicts arrangement and relationships between
entity supertypes and entity subtypes
• Inheritance means an entity subtype inherits
attributes and relationships of supertype
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 Summary (cont’d.)

• Subtype discriminator determines which entity

subtype the supertype occurrence is related to:
– Partial or total completeness
– Specialization vs. generalization
• Entity cluster is “virtual” entity type
– Represents multiple entities and relationships in
ERD
– Formed by combining multiple interrelated
entities and relationships into a single object

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 Summary (cont’d.)

• Natural keys are identifiers that exist in real

world
– Sometimes make good primary keys
• Characteristics of primary keys:
– Must have unique values
– Should be nonintelligent
– Must not change over time
– Preferably numeric or composed of single
attribute
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 Summary (cont’d.)
• Composite keys are useful to represent
– M:N relationships
– Weak (strong-identifying) entities
• Surrogate primary keys are useful when no
suitable natural key makes primary key
• In a 1:1 relationship, place the PK of mandatory
entity:
– As FK in optional entity
– As FK in entity that causes least number of nulls
– As FK where the role is played
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 Summary (cont’d.)

• Time-variant data
– Data whose values change over time
– Requires keeping a history of changes
• To maintain history of time-variant data:
– Create entity containing the new value, date of
change, other time-relevant data
– Entity maintains 1:M relationship with entity for
which history maintained

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