Operating Systems

MCAH102

Venugopala Rao A S
Head – Computer Applications Department
PIM Udupi
 Operating System Overview
• The tool used by system programmers in developing the early multiprogramming
and multiuser interactive systems was the interrupt.
• The activity of any job could be suspended by the occurrence of a defined event,
such as an I/O completion.
• The processor would save some sort of context (e.g., program counter and other
registers) and branch to an interrupt-handling routine.
• This routine would determine the nature of the interrupt, processes the interrupt,
and then resume user processing with the interrupted job or some other job.

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 Operating System Overview
• Key issues:
• Improper synchronization:
• It is often the case that a routine must be suspended awaiting an event elsewhere
in the system.
• For example, a program that initiates an I/O read must wait until the data are
available in a buffer before proceeding.
• In such cases, a signal from some other routine is required.
• Improper design of the signaling mechanism can result in signals being lost or
duplicate signals being received.

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 Operating System Overview
• Failed mutual exclusion:
• Many a times, more than one user or program will attempt to make use of a shared
resource at the same time.
• E.g.: two users may attempt to edit the same file at the same time.
• If these accesses are not controlled, an error can occur.
• There must be some sort of mutual exclusion mechanism that permits only one
routine at a time to perform an update against the file.
• The implementation of such mutual exclusion is difficult to verify

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 Operating System Overview
• Non-determinate program operation:
• The results of a program normally should depend only on the input to that
program and not on the activities of other programs in a shared system.
• But when programs share memory, they may interfere with each other by
overwriting common memory areas in unpredictable ways.
• Thus, the order in which various programs are scheduled may affect the outcome
of any particular program.
• Deadlocks:
• It is possible for two or more programs to be hung up waiting for each other.
• For example, two programs may each require two I/O devices to perform some
operation (e.g., disk to tape copy).
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 Operating System Overview
• One of the programs has seized control of one of the devices and the other
program has control of the other device.
• Each is waiting for the other program to release the desired resource.
• What is needed to tackle these problems is a systematic way to monitor and
control the various programs executing on the processor?
• We need to understand the concept of the process to address these issues.
• We will see Process in detail later in this module

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 Operating System Overview
• Memory Management
• System managers need efficient and orderly control of storage allocation.
• The OS, to satisfy these requirements, has five principal storage management
responsibilities:
• Process isolation:
• The OS must prevent independent processes from interfering with each other’s
memory, both data and instructions.
• Automatic allocation and management:
• Programs should be dynamically allocated across the memory hierarchy as required.
• Allocation should be transparent to the programmer.
• Thus, the programmer need not worry about memory limitations and the OS can
achieve efficiency by assigning memoryPIM,toUdupijobs only as needed.
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 Operating System Overview
• Support of modular programming:
• Programmers should be able to define program modules, and to create, destroy,
and alter the size of modules dynamically.
• Protection and access control:
• Sharing of memory, at any level of the memory hierarchy, may lead to one
program to address the memory space of another.
• This is desirable when sharing is needed by particular applications.
• At other times, it threatens the integrity of programs and even of the OS itself.
• Long-term storage:
• Many application programs require means for storing information for extended
periods of time, after the computer has been powered down.
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 Operating System Overview
• OS meets these requirements with virtual memory and file system facilities.
• The file system implements a long-term store, with information stored in named
objects, called files.
• The file is a convenient concept for the programmer and is a useful unit of access
control and protection for the OS.
• Virtual memory is a facility that allows programs to address memory from a
logical point of view, without regard to the amount of main memory physically
available.
• Virtual memory was conceived to meet the requirement of having multiple user
jobs reside in main memory concurrently, so that there would not be a interruption
between the execution of successive processes
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 Operating System Overview
• Information Protection and Security
• The growth in the use of time-sharing systems and computer networks has
demanded in the concern for the protection of information.
• The nature of the threat that concerns an organization will vary depending on the
circumstances.
• We are concerned with the problem of controlling access to computer systems and
the information stored in them.
• Much of the work in security and protection can be roughly grouped into four
categories:
• Availability: Concerned with protecting the system against interruption.

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 Operating System Overview
• Confidentiality: Assures that users cannot read data for which access is unauthorized.
• Data integrity: Protection of data from unauthorized modification.
• Authenticity: Concerned with the proper verification of the identity of users and the
validity of messages or data.
• Scheduling and Resource Management
• A key responsibility of the OS is to manage the various resources available to it
(main memory space, I/O devices, processors) and to schedule their use by the
various active processes.
• Any resource allocation and scheduling policy must consider three factors:
• Fairness: We would like all processes that are competing for the use of a particular
resource to be given approximately equal and fair access to that resource.
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 Operating System Overview
• Differential responsiveness:
• The OS may need to discriminate among different classes of jobs with different
service requirements.
• The OS should attempt to make allocation and scheduling decisions to meet the
total set of requirements.
• The OS should also make these decisions dynamically.

• For example, if a process is waiting for the use of an I/O device, the OS may wish
to schedule that process for execution as soon as possible to free up the device for
later demands from other processes.

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 Operating System Overview
• Efficiency:
• The OS should attempt to maximize throughput, minimize response time, and, in
the case of time sharing, accommodate as many users as possible.
• These criteria conflict – finding the right balance for a particular situation is an
ongoing problem for OS research.

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 Operating System Overview
• DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO MODERN OPERATING SYSTEMS

• Over the years, gradual evolution of OS structure and capabilities have been
recorded.
• But in the recent years a number of new design elements have been introduced
into both new operating systems and new releases of existing operating systems
that create a major change in the nature of operating systems
• These modern operating systems respond to new developments in hardware, new
applications, and new security threats.
• The key hardware drivers are multiprocessor systems, greatly increased processor
speed, high-speed network attachments, and increasing size and variety of
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 Operating System Overview
• In the application side, multimedia applications, Internet and Web access, and
client/server computing have influenced OS design.
• With respect to security, Internet access to computers has increased the threat and
increasingly sophisticated attacks, such as viruses, worms, and hacking
techniques, have had a profound impact on OS design
• The rate of change in the demands on operating systems requires not just
modifications and enhancements to existing architectures but new ways of
organizing the OS

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 Operating System Overview
• A wide range of different approaches and design elements has been tried in both
experimental and commercial operating systems which can be grouped into

the following categories:

• Microkernel architecture
• Multithreading
• Symmetric multiprocessing
• Distributed operating systems
• Object-oriented design

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