DC and AC Circuits

PHY1221

Dr. Anwarul Kabir Bhuiya

 Introduction
The electronics components can be divided into two categories: active components and passive
components. Inductor (I), Resistor (R), and Capacitor (C) are the instances of passive
components. They are being used in electronics circuits, and they may be found in practically
any circuit. The RC, RL, LC, and RLC circuits are formed by combining these three
components in various configurations. They have various applications, including filtering
circuits, tube light chokes, and multivibrators. Thus, we will explore the fundamentals of these
circuits and the theory behind them. The letter “R” is used to represent a resistor. A resistor is
a component that wastes energy primarily as heat. It will have a voltage drop that will remain
constant for a constant current flow.
Capacitor
The letter ‘C’ stands for the capacitor. A capacitor is a device that stores energy in the form of
an electric field (temporary). A capacitor is a device that resists voltage changes. Capacitors
come in various shapes and sizes, with ceramic and electrolytic capacitors being the most
common. They charge in one way but discharge in the opposite.
Inductor
The letter ‘L’ is used to represent an inductor. A capacitor is similar to an inductor in that it
stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. Inductors resist changes in the current. Inductors
are coiled coil wires that are infrequently used compared to the first two components. When
these resistors, capacitors, and inductors are combined, we can create circuits like the RL, and
RLC circuits, RC coupled amplifiers, which have time and frequency-dependent responses and
may be used in a variety of AC applications. An RC/RL/RLC circuit can be used as a filter,
oscillator, and much more.
Discuss About RC, RL and LCR circuits

RC Circuit

A capacitor and a resistor will be connected in series or parallel to a voltage or current source in
the RC circuit (Resistor Capacitor Circuit). Because they are most typically utilized in filtering
applications, these circuits are also known as RC networks. Low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass
filters can all be constructed using an RC circuit. To make an RC circuit, we connected a load
(light bulb) with a known resistance of 1k Ohms in series with a capacitor of 470uF. The circuit
is powered by a 12V battery, and it is closed and opened using a switch. When the switch is
turned on, the maximum voltage (12V) is applied to the resistive light bulb load (V r), and the
voltage across the capacitor is zero. When the switch is turned off, the voltage across the resistor
drops to zero, and as the capacitor charges, the voltage rises to its maximum level

RL Circuit
An inductor and a resistor will be connected in series or parallel in the RL Circuit (Resistor
Inductor Circuit). A voltage source will drive a series RL circuit, while a current source will
drive a parallel RL circuit. A first-order RL circuit with only one inductor and one capacitor is
often used in passive filters.

RLC Circuit
An RLC circuit comprises a resistor, capacitor, and inductor that are linked in series or parallel.
The circuit produces an oscillator circuit, which may be found in radio receivers and television
sets. It is also commonly used as a damper circuit in analogue applications.
Basic principle of RC/RL and LCR circuits

Let us look at how a resistor, capacitor, and inductor act in an electronic circuit before moving
on to the next topic. Consider a basic circuit with a capacitor and resistor in series with a power
supply for the sake of comprehension (5V). When the power supply is connected to the RC
circuit pair, the voltage across the resistor (V r) increases to its maximum value while the
voltage across the capacitor (Vc) remains zero. As the capacitor builds charge, the voltage
across the resistor decreases and the voltage grows across the capacitor until the resistor voltage
(Vr) is zero and the capacitor voltage (Vc) is maximum. RC coupling is the abbreviation for
resistance-capacitance coupling. In amplifiers, this is the most common coupling approach.

The voltage across the resistor reaches its maximum when the switch is turned on, but the
voltage across the capacitor remains at zero. The capacitor then charges up to the point where
Vr is zero and Vc is maximum. When the switch is switched off, the capacitor discharges,
resulting in a negative voltage across the resistor, and as the capacitor discharges, the capacitor
and resistor voltages become zero. Inductors can be represented in the same way. When the
capacitor is replaced with an inductor, the waveform will be mirrored, which means that when
the switch is turned on, the voltage across the resistor (V r) will be zero because the entire
voltage will appear across the inductor (Vl). The voltage across the inductor (Vl) will reach zero
as the inductor charges up, while the voltage across the resistor (V r) will reach its maximum
voltage.
 Write down the applications of an RC circuit as a Low and pass filter, Notch filter
and phase shift oscillator?

Low pass and high pass filters

The figure shows an example of first order low pass and high pass filters.

The 3-dB cut-off frequency for both filters is

fc=1 / 2πR1C1

These filter are passive, but RC can be used to implement similar filters with op-amps.
Notch filter

The notch frequency is

fn=1/2πRC
The Q factor is very small, about 0.25. To get higher Q factors it is necessary to use active
implementations.
 Phase-shift oscillator

Another application of RC circuits is the implementation of a 180° phase shift network in

an oscillator.

The signal on the transistor collector is 180° out of phase compared to the signal on the
base. By introducing a 180° phase shift, the RC network allows to implement a positive
feedback necessary to sustain the oscillations.

For C1=C2=C3=C, R1=R2=R3=R and R5>>R the oscillation frequency is given by

fo = 1/2πRC√6
 What is the time constant for a RC circuit?
Current through the resistor is the voltage difference across the resistor divided by the
resistance (Ohm’s law). Current through the capacitor is given by the equation
I = C * (dV/dt). In the series connection this combines to:
(Vo - V) / R = C * (dV/dt)
The solution to this differential equation is:
(1 - (V/Vo)) = exp (-t/ (R*C)

As V (the voltage on the capacitor) increases, the quantity (Vo - V) decreases (the voltage
across the resistor). This means that as the capacitor voltage increases the current decreases.

Meaning - the capacitor will never become “fully charged” (V/Vo = 1), or 0 = exp (-t/(R*C)).
According to the exponential equation that would require t to be infinity!

The “time constant” (R * C) in the equation is the time at which the exponent is -1. At that
time (1-V/Vo) = 1/e = 0.368 . V/Vo then is (1–0.368) = 0.632 .

This may seem like a strange number, but let’s look at the situation where V/Vo = 0.5 , or 0.5
= exp(-t/(R*C)). Taking the natural log (ln) of both sides yields:
-0.69 = (-t/(R*C)), or 0.69 = t / (R*C) . The verbal expression for this is “at the half-charge
point the time is 0.69 time constants”.
We resolve the problem of the charge never coming to an end by defining an acceptable
threshold at which we declare the capacitor to be “fully charged”. This threshold will be 95%
for t/RC = 3 and 99.2% for t/RC = 5.
In an RC series circuit, how do we find the current after one time constant?

With an initial voltage over the resistor and the capacitor, and the current defined as going
in the direction of the arrow.
We know the following:

vR(t)=−R⋅iR(t)

iC(t)=C⋅dvC(t)/dt

and vR(0) = V0=−R⋅I0 depending on if you have an initial voltage or initial current.

We know i(t)=iR(t)=iC(t) and v(t)=vR(t)=vC(t)

thus C⋅dv(t)/dt=−v/R

dv(t)/dt+1/RC=0

which means v(t) should be an exponential, general form with constants k and α:

v(t) = keαt => dv(t)/dt = αkeαt

αkeαt +1/RC αkeαt t=0

α+1/RC=0 meaning α = −1/RC ………….v(t) = ke−t/RC

This is the general solution for a source-less RC circuit.

Since v(0) = V0, ke0 = V0 => k = V0 = 0, Which gives v(t) = V0 . e−t/τ

and i(t) =−V0/R e−t/τ

Finally, i(τ) = −V0 / R e−τ/τ = −V0 /R. e−1

 What is the bandwidth of an LCR circuit?

Actually the bandwidth is related to signal processing. As a definition we can say

bandwidth of a system is the range of frequencies for which the total power is more than
the half of maximum power.

If 'Pmax' is the maximum power, then it is the range of frequencies for which Power >
( Pmax/2 ) is called bandwidth.

The upper and lower frequencies at which power become half is called half power
frequencies or corner frequencies.

Now in case of RLC circuit, max power is obtained at resonance. We can calculate
Pmax =I*I*R because impedance at resonance is R.

Power becomes half means current becomes I/√2. So half power frequency can also
defined as the frequency at which current becomes I/√2.

As an equation we derive Bandwidth = R/(2pi L) or Resonance Frequency/Quality factor

 If the frequency increases, how does the current in LCR circuit change?

In LCR Circuit The resistor is not frequency dependent. It will behave same for AC or DC
The L and C are frequency dependent .

The impedance X(L) = 2*pi*f* L ; Therefore , if f increases X[L] increases

The impedance X[C] = 1/(pi*f* C) ; Therefore if f increases X[C] decreases

The net impedance is in a LCR series circuit is Z = R + X[L] + X[C] ;

Since X[L] and X[C] are varying the current will be varying . The Value of X[C] is
negative; Hence at some specific frequency called Resonance X[L] + X[C] = 0 and only R
remains and hence the current will be maximum

In a similar pattern in LCR parallel circuit the current will be minimum in Resonance
 What is the significance of Q factor in LCR circuit?

Quality factor controls the damping of oscillations. If Q is less than 1/2 , it is underdamped
and losses in the circuit are minimal and oscillations will be sustained longer.

Q factor is ratio of reactance to resistance in LC circuits. Resistive losses in the inductance

will affect the Q factor.

For series LCR circuit

For parallel LCR circuit

 What is the condition for resonance in a LCR circuit?

Following 3 cases (which are the most important) can be considered:

(1) What is the condition for resonance in an LCR-series circuit?

(ie, a capacitance C in series with a self-inductance L and also in series with a resistance R).
This case is important because it can be seen in the laboratory where a low frequency coil
behaves like an L in series with R.
...
(2) What is the condition for resonance in a parallel-LCR circuit?
(ie, a capacitance C in parallel with a self-inductance L and also in parallel with a
resistance R).
Experimentally, this case is less important because there are no coils without R (except the
special case of superconducting coils).
...
(3) What is the condition for resonance in an LCR circuit formed by a capacitor in parallel
with a coil?
(ie, a capacitance C in parallel with the set formed by L in series with R).
This case is important because it corresponds to the real situation where a capacitor is
connected in parallel with a real coil in low frequency.
In the first two cases, the resonance frequency is the same as that calculated for
the case (1) in all physics books, in the chapter of alternating current. Then,

(1) the reactive part of the impedance must be zero, that is:
X = XL + XC = wL - 1 / (wC) = 0

(2) the reactive part of the admittance must be zero, that is:
B = BL + BC = - 1 / (wL) + wC = 0

being w = 2 pi f the angular frequency, X the reactance and B the susceptance.

In both cases, w^2 LC = 1, and the angular resonance frequency w is

2 pi f = 1 / square root of LC.

...
In case (3), the resistance R in series with L affects the value of the impedance of the
coil, and therefore, the resonance frequency will be different.