LAN and WAN(Devices routers,

hubs and switches)

 Three Major Types of Networks
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Serves users within a confined geographical area
(usually within a mile).
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Covers a geographic area the size of a city or
suburb. The purpose of a MAN is often to bypass
local telephone companies when accessing long-
distance service.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Covers a wide geographical area, such as a state or
a country. Examples: Tyment, Telenet, Uninet, and
Accunet. 2
 Emphasis
Definition of a Local Area Network (LAN)
• Physical and Logical LAN Topologies
• Different Medium Access Control Protocols
• Common LAN Systems
– Ethernet (1st commercially available LAN)
– Token ring
– FDDI (fiber data distributed interface) ring

3
Introduction
A local area network is a communication network that
interconnects a variety of data communicating devices within
a small geographic area and broadcasts data at
• high data transfer rates
• very low error rates.
(WANs now do this too)
Since the local area network first appeared in the 1970s, its
use has become widespread in commercial and academic
environments.

4
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Functions of a Local Area Network

File server - A large storage disk drive that acts as a central
storage repository.
Print server - Provides the authorization to access a particular
printer, accept and queue print jobs, and provides a user
access to the print queue to perform administrative duties.
Interconnection - A LAN can provide an interconnection to
other LANs and to wide area networks.

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 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Functions of a Local Area Network

Video transfers - High speed LANs are capable of supporting
video image and live video transfers.
Manufacturing support - LANs can support manufacturing
and industrial environments.
Distributed processing - LANs can support network operating
systems which perform the operations of distributed
processing.

6
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Advantages of Local Area Networks

Ability to share hardware and software resources.
Individual workstation might survive network failure.
Component and system evolution are possible.
Support for heterogeneous forms of hardware and software.
Access to other LANs and WANs (Figure 7-1).
Private ownership.
Secure transfers at high speeds with low error rates.
7
Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

8
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Disadvantages of Local Area Networks

Equipment and support can be costly.
Level of maintenance continues to grow.
Private ownership?
Some types of hardware may not interoperate.
Just because a LAN can support two different kinds of
packages does not mean their data can interchange easily.
A LAN is only as strong as it weakest link, and there are
many links. 9
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Basic Network Topologies

Topology: the geometric configuration
Separate from protocols!
Local area networks are interconnected using one of four
basic configurations:
1. Bus/tree
2. Star-wired bus
3. Star-wired ring
4. Wireless 10
Basic Network Topologies
Logical vs physical design (topologies)
1. Logical design: how the data moves around the network
from workstation to workstation
2. Physical design: how the network physically appears if
drawn on a sheet of paper (laid out)
Names of topologies usually refer to the physical design.

11
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7
Bus/Tree Topology
The original topology – 1970’s
Workstation has a network interface card (NIC) provides a
physical connection to a network
Data can be transferred using either
1.baseband digital signals
2.broadband analog signals.

12
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7
Bus/Tree Topology
Workstation has a network interface card (NIC) provides a
physical connection to a network
Attaches to the bus (a coaxial cable) via a tap.
NIC is an electronic device that performs the necessary signal
conversions and protocols operations so that the workstation can send
and receive data on the network.
Tap is a passive device
Does not alter the signal
Does not require electricity to operate

13
Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

14
 LAN Topologies: Bus
• Consists of a single wire to which
individual stations are attached
• Each end has a terminator attached to it
• Data travels the entire length of the cable
• Transmission from any stations travels
entire medium (both directions)
• Inexpensive and easy to install
• Ethernet is the common form of a bus
topology system
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Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

16
Bus/Tree Topology
Baseband signals
Digital signals – 10 Mbps
Bidirectional and more outward in both directions from the
workstation transmitting.
Easy to install and maintain
Fewer than 100 workstations
Buses can be split and joined, creating trees.

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Data Communications and Computer Networks
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 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Advantages/disadvantages of a bus
Difficult to add new devices if no tap exists.
No tap existing means cutting into the line
As such, this topology is loosing popularity
Plenty still around; Ethernet uses this.

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 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Star-wired Topologies
Stars versus a single line
Two types:
1.Star-wired bus
(often call the star topology)
2.Star-wired ring

20
Star-wired Bus Topology
Logically operates as a bus, but physically looks like a star.
Star design is based on hub. All workstations attach to hub.
Hub is an unintelligent device that immediately transmits whatever
data it receives to all connections
Unshielded twisted pair usually used to connect workstation
to hub.
Hub takes incoming signal and immediately broadcasts it out
all connected links.
Hubs can be interconnected to extend size of network.
Very popular!
21
Hubs
• Active central element of star layout
• Each station connected to hub by two lines
— Transmit and receive
• Hub acts as a repeater
• When single station transmits, hub repeats signal on outgoing line to each
station
• Line consists of two unshielded twisted pairs
• Limited to about 100 m
— High data rate and poor transmission qualities of UTP
• Optical fiber may be used
— Max about 500 m
• Physically star, logically bus
• Transmission from any station received by all other stations
• If two stations transmit at the same time, collision
Hub Layouts
• Multiple levels of hubs cascaded
• Each hub may have a mixture of stations and other hubs
attached to from below
• Fits well with building wiring practices
— Wiring closet on each floor
— Hub can be placed in each one
— Each hub services stations on its floor
Star-wired bus physical topology for a LAN

24
Interconnection of two hubs in a star-wired bus LAN

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 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Star-wired Bus Topology

Modular connectors and twisted pair make installation and
maintenance of star-wired bus better than standard bus.
Hubs can be interconnected with twisted pair, coaxial cable,
or fiber optic cable.
Biggest disadvantage: when one station talks, everyone hears
it. This is called a shared network. All devices are sharing
the network medium.

26
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Star-wired Ring Topology

Logically operates as a ring but physically appears as a star.
Star-wired ring topology is based on MAU (multi-station
access unit) which functions similarly to a hub.
Where a hub immediately broadcasts all incoming signals
onto all connected links, the MAU passes the signal around in
a ring fashion in one direction.
Like hubs, MAUs can be interconnected to increase network
size.
27
Ring topology viewed logically

28
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

NIC Repeaters for Star-wired Ring

All data must pass through a NIC repeater
Performs basic functions:
Bypass: data does not copy to the workstation, used for
inactive devices
Copy: data from ring copied to workstation
Write: data from the workstation copied to the ring
Regenerates: recopies data back onto ring
29
Repeater
 Regenerates and propagates all electrical transmissions between 2 or
more LAN segments
 Allows extension of a network beyond physical length limitations
 Layer 1 of the “OSI model”

Network A Network B

Higher Higher
Layers Layers
Repeater
Physical Physical Physical
30
Three possible operations of the workstation repeater
on a ring topology

31
Physical organization of a ring topology
Looks like a star!

32
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocols

How does a workstation get its data onto the LAN medium?
A medium access control protocol is the software that allows
workstations to “take turns” at transmitting data.
Since a LAN is a broadcast network, it’s imperative that
only one workstation at a time be allowed to transmit data
onto the network. (for multiple channels, one channel per
workstation)
Switches have changed that, but we’ll take about that in Ch8.

33
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Medium Access Control Protocols

Three basic categories:
1. Contention-based protocols (1st come; 1st serve)
2. Round robin protocols (take your turn!!)
3. Reservation protocols (requests please!)

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 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Contention-Based Protocols
Essentially first come first served.
Most common example is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
If no one is transmitting, a workstation can transmit.
If someone else is transmitting, the workstation “backs off”
and waits.
Half duplex protocol.
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Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

36
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Round Robin Protocols

Each workstation takes a turn transmitting and the turn is
passed around the network from workstation to workstation.
Most common example is token ring LAN in which a
software token is passed from workstation to workstation.
Token ring is an example of a deterministic protocol.
Token ring more complex than CSMA/CD. What happens if
token is lost? Duplicated? Hogged?
Token ring LANs are losing the battle with CSMA/CD LANs.
37
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Why CSMA/CD more popular than

Token Ring
1st LAN MAC method, more installations and equipment.
Token rings have almost always lagged behind in
transmission speed.
CSMA/CD less expensive to implement because of
widespread marketing and acceptance.
CSMA/CD is a simpler protocol.
Wireless CSMA/CD now exists
38
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Medium Access Control Sublayer

To better support local area networks, the data link layer of
the OSI model was broken into two sublayers:
1. Logical link control sublayer
2. Medium access control (MAC) sublayer
Medium access control sublayer defines the frame layout and
is more closely tied to a specific medium at the physical
layer.
Thus, when people refer to LANs they often refer to its MAC
sublayer name, such as 10BaseT. 39
Modification of OSI model to split data link layer into
two sublayers

40
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

IEEE 802 Frame Formats

The IEEE 802 suite of protocols defines the frame formats for
CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3) and token ring (IEEE 802.5).
Each frame format describes how the data package is formed.
Note how the two frames are different. If a CSMA/CD
network connects to a token ring network, the frames have to
be converted from one to another.

41
Frame format for IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD Protocol

42
Frame Format for IEEE 802.5 Token Ring Protocol

43
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Local Area Network Systems

Ethernet or CSMA/CD
Most common form of LAN today.
Star-wired bus is most common topology but bus topology
also around.
Ethernet comes in many forms depending upon medium used
and transmission speed and technology.

44
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Ethernet
Originally, CSMA/CD was 10 Mbps.
Then 100 Mbps was introduced. Most NICs sold today are
10/100 Mbps.
Then 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) was introduced.
10 Gbps is now available.

45
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Ethernet
Cabling can be either UTP (unshielded twisted pair) or
optical (but 10 Gbps Ethernet may not work over UTP due to
radio frequency interference).
Where 10 Mbps Ethernet has less than 30% utilization due to
collisions, 1000 Mbps is limited only by traffic queueing.
Distance with 10 Mbps is limited by CSMA/CD propagation
time, whereas 1000 Mbps limited only by media.

46
47
 Data Communications and Computer Networks
Chapter 7

Local Area Network Systems

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
Based on the token ring design using 100 Mbps fiber
connections.
Allows for two concentric rings - inner ring can support data
travel in opposite direction or work as backup.
Token is attached to the outgoing packet, rather than waiting
for the outgoing packet to circle the entire ring.

48
Layer 2 and Layer 3 Switches
• Now many types of devices for interconnecting LANs
• Beyond bridges and routers
• Layer 2 switches
• Layer 3 switches
Layer 2 Switches
• Central hub acts as switch
• Incoming frame from particular station switched to
appropriate output line
• Unused lines can switch other traffic
• More than one station transmitting at a time
• Multiplying capacity of LAN
Layer 2 Switch Benefits
• No change to attached devices to convert bus LAN or hub LAN
to switched LAN
• For Ethernet LAN, each device uses Ethernet MAC protocol
• Device has dedicated capacity equal to original LAN
— Assuming switch has sufficient capacity to keep up with all devices
— For example if switch can sustain throughput of 20 Mbps, each device
appears to have dedicated capacity for either input or output of 10
Mbps
• Layer 2 switch scales easily
— Additional devices attached to switch by increasing capacity of layer 2
Types of Layer 2 Switch
• Store-and-forward switch
— Accepts frame on input line
— Buffers it briefly,
— Then routes it to appropriate output line
— Delay between sender and receiver
— Boosts integrity of network
• Cut-through switch
— Takes advantage of destination address appearing at beginning of
frame
— Switch begins repeating frame onto output line as soon as it
recognizes destination address
— Highest possible throughput
— Risk of propagating bad frames
• Switch unable to check CRC prior to retransmission
Layer 2 Switch v Bridge
• Layer 2 switch can be viewed as full-duplex hub
• Can incorporate logic to function as multiport bridge
• Bridge frame handling done in software
• Switch performs address recognition and frame forwarding in
hardware
• Bridge only analyzes and forwards one frame at a time
• Switch has multiple parallel data paths
— Can handle multiple frames at a time
• Bridge uses store-and-forward operation
• Switch can have cut-through operation
• Bridge suffered commercially
— New installations typically include layer 2 switches with bridge
functionality rather than bridges
Problems with Layer 2 Switches (1)
• As number of devices in building grows, layer 2 switches
reveal some inadequacies
• Broadcast overload
• Lack of multiple links
• Set of devices and LANs connected by layer 2 switches have
flat address space
— Allusers share common MAC broadcast address
— If any device issues broadcast frame, that frame is delivered to all
devices attached to network connected by layer 2 switches and/or
bridges
— In large network, broadcast frames can create big overhead
— Malfunctioning device can create broadcast storm
• Numerous broadcast frames clog network
Problems with Layer 2 Switches (2)
• Current standards for bridge protocols dictate no closed loops
— Only one path between any two devices
— Impossible in standards-based implementation to provide multiple
paths through multiple switches between devices
• Limits both performance and reliability.
• Solution: break up network into subnetworks connected by
routers
• MAC broadcast frame limited to devices and switches
contained in single subnetwork
• IP-based routers employ sophisticated routing algorithms
— Allow use of multiple paths between subnetworks going through
different routers
Bridges
• Ability to expand beyond single LAN
• Provide interconnection to other LANs/WANs
• Use Bridge or router
• Bridge is simpler
—Connects similar LANs
—Identical protocols for physical and link layers
—Minimal processing
• Router more general purpose
—Interconnect various LANs and WANs
—see later
 Bridge
 Connects 2 or more LAN segments and uses data link layer addresses
(e.g.MAC addresses) to make data forwarding decisions
 Copies frames from one network to the other
 Layer 2 of the “OSI model”

Node in Network A Node in Network B

Higher Higher
Layers Bridge Layers
Data Link Data Link
23-01-88-A8-77-45 Data Link Data Link 53-F1-A4-AB-67-4F

Physical Physical 1 Physical 2 Physical

57
Why Bridge?
• Reliability
• Performance
• Security
• Geography
Functions of a Bridge
• Read all frames transmitted on one LAN and accept
those address to any station on the other LAN
• Using MAC protocol for second LAN, retransmit each
frame
• Do the same the other way round
Bridge Operation
Bridge Design Aspects
• No modification to content or format of frame
• No encapsulation
• Exact bitwise copy of frame
• Minimal buffering to meet peak demand
• Contains routing and address intelligence
— Must be able to tell which frames to pass
— May be more than one bridge to cross
• May connect more than two LANs
• Bridging is transparent to stations
— Appears to all stations on multiple LANs as if they are on one single
LAN
Bridge Protocol Architecture
• IEEE 802.1D
• MAC level
— Station address is at this level
• Bridge does not need LLC layer
— It is relaying MAC frames
• Can pass frame over external comms system
— e.g. WAN link
— Capture frame
— Encapsulate it
— Forward it across link
— Remove encapsulation and forward over LAN link
 Why separate hosts in a network?
 Common issues with large networks: performance
degradation, security issues, and address management
(identifying hosts).
Discuss
Broadcast
domains..
Be able to
identify
how many
there are!
Why separate hosts?
 Security…not allowing students to access research records
and vice-versa.
 Done with routers and firewalls.
Why separate hosts?
 Address management. Identifying host and using default
gateways.
Hierarchical Addressing
 Routers use the network portion…switches use the host
portion.
Router Connects Two Networks
 Router
 Connects 2 or more networks and uses network layer addresses (like
IP address) to make data forwarding decisions
 Layer 3 of the “OSI model”

A node in Network A A node in Network B

Higher Higher
Layers Router Layers
Network Network
137.22.144.6 145.65.23.102
Network Network
Data Link Data Link Data Link
Data Link
Physical Physical 1 Physical 2 Physical

68
Routers Connect Local and Remote Networks
Device parameters
 If a host needs to communicate ANYWHERE that isn’t on the
local LAN, you must use an intermediary device (router).
Default Gateway
 Necessary if you are going to communicate with the outside world. You
have to key this in on the host device
 If not configured, can only communicate locally on your LAN
 The host and the default gateway MUST be on the same network.
 Use ipconfig to view ip address, subnet mask, and default gateway
information.
 May also use netstat –r, or route print to view routing details on your PC
(stop and do this now…look at your default gateway.
 For any given host, it is the NEAR-SIDE Router interface.
What is the first router interface a packet would encounter if it left
your PC? The IP address of that interface on the router becomes your
default gate in the PC.
Packet Forwarding
 Decisions have to be made at each DEVICE along the path
until the packet reaches its final destination
Routing packets
 Routers and routing tables
 3 main features: Destination network, next-hop, and the
metric. Discuss the routing table below.

Discuss
routing table
information –
know these !
Functions of a router

 Select the ‘Best Path’ for data delivery

 Switch packet out the proper port
 Routers use the Network portion of the IP address to
forward packets.
 They don’t care about the EXACT host, just the EXACT
network.
 If broadcast storms arise, network admins can replace layer
2 devices (switches) with layer 3 (routers) or subnet the
network into smaller components.
Default Route?

 A default route is where the router sends remote data if it

does not have the destination network in the routing table.
 Network admin must DEFINE the default route.
 If it exists, the packets will be sent there
 If it doesn’t exist, the packets will simply be dropped!
Finding the desirable route
 When a packet enters a router, the router looks at the
routing table to decide WHERE to forward the packet.
 Therefore, the precedence of route selection for the packet
going to 10.1.1.55 would be:
 1. 10.1.1.0
 2. 10.1.0.0
 3. 10.0.0.0
 4. 0.0.0.0 (Default route if configured)
 5. Dropped
Routers job in packet forwarding
 Done packet by packet and at every router
 Router will either forward it to next-hop router, forward it to
the destination host, or drop the packet.
Types of routes

 Static – manually configured by network admin. Can’t do

this for every route. Becomes too burdensome!
Types of routes
 Dynamic – learned from other routers (RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, etc.)
Up-to-date routing tables are exchanged.
 Consumes bandwidth
Problems with Routers
• Routers do all IP-level processing in software
—High-speed LANs and high-performance layer 2 switches
pump millions of packets per second
—Software-based router only able to handle well under a
million packets per second
• Solution: layer 3 switches
—Implementpacket-forwarding logic of router in hardware
• Two categories
—Packet by packet
—Flow based
Wide area network
 A Wide Area Network is a network spanning a large geographical area
of around several hundred miles to across the globe
 May be privately owned or leased
 Also called “enterprise networks” if they are privately owned by a
large company
 It can be leased through one or several carriers (ISPs-Internet Service
Providers) such as AT&T, Sprint, Cable and Wireless
 Can be connected through cable, fiber or satellite
 Is typically slower and less reliable than a LAN
 Services include internet, frame relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode)

82
 Example of WAN application
Sprint
Network

LA
Runs a 100 Mbps LAN

Sprint provisions a connection

between the two networks
DC
Runs a 1Gbps LAN
83