Chapter 2

Introduction to
Systems Architecture
 Chapter 2
Introduction to
Systems Architecture
Automated Computation
Computer Capabilities
Computer Hardware
Computer System Classes
The Role of Software
Economics of System and Application
Development Software
Computer Networks
 Chapter Goals
• Discuss the development of automated computing
• Describe the general capabilities of a computer
• Describe computer system components and their
functions
• List computer system classes and their
distinguishing characteristics
• Define the role and function of application and
system software
• Describe the economic role of system and
application development software
• Describe the components and functions of
computer networks
 Systems Architecture
• Describes structure, interaction, and
technology of computer system components

• Capabilities of a computer

– Accept numeric inputs

– Perform computational functions

– Communicate results
 Automated Computation
• Mechanical

– Early computers with limited capabilities

• Electronic

– Fast, accurate, reliable

• Optical

– Fast, accurate, reliable

Mechanical Implementation
• Mechanical representation of a mathematical
calculation

• Limitations and shortcomings

– Complex design and construction

– Wear, breakdown, and maintenance of

parts

– Limits on operating speed

 The
Difference
Engine

1821

Charles
Babbage
Electronic Implementation
• Stores numerical values as magnetic charges
or by positioning electrical switches

• Can convert physical movement into electrical

signals, or vice versa

• World War II – impetus for change

• Faster, more reliable, easier to build than

mechanical counterparts
 Optical Implementation
• Harnesses energy of a moving photon

• Represents data as pulses of light stored

directly or indirectly by materials that
reflect or don’t reflect light

• Now common in computer networks that

cover large distances
 Quantum Computing
• A new kind of computing based on quantum
mechanics

• Somewhat controversial

• Not yet shown to be usable

Computer Capabilities
• Processing

• Storage

• Communication
 Processor
Device that performs
data manipulation and
transformation functions

Computation

Comparison

Data movement
memory
mass storage
input/output devices
Processor Terminology
• Instructions

• Programs

• Processor types
– General-purpose
– Special-purpose

• Formulas and algorithms

• Comparisons and branching

 A Formulaic Program
10 INPUT QUANTITY_SOLD

20 INPUT SELLING_PRICE

30 INTERMEDIATE_RESULT = QUANTITY_SOLD * SELLING_PRICE

40 GROSS_PROFIT = INTERMEDIATE_RESULT – SELLING_EXPENSES

50 OUTPUT GROSS PROFIT

60 END
An Algorithmic Program
10 INPUT INCOME
20 IF INCOME > 7150 THEN GOTO 50
30 TAX = INCOME * 0.10
40 GOTO 180
50 IF INCOME > 29050 THEN GOTO 80
60 TAX = 715.00 + ((INCOME – 7150) * 0.15)
70 GOTO 180
80 IF INCOME > 29050 THEN GOTO 110
90 TAX = 4000.00 + ((INCOME – 29050) * 0.25)
100 GOTO 180
110 IF INCOME > 70350 THEN GOTO 140
120 TAX = 14325.00 + ((INCOME – 70350) * 0.28)
130 GOTO 180
140 IF INCOME > 319100 THEN GOTO 170
150 TAX = 35717.00 + ((INCOME – 146750) * 0.33)
160 GOTO 180
170 TAX = 92592.50 + ((INCOME – 319100) * 0.35)
180 OUTPUT TAX
190 END
 Storage Capacity
• Types of information to be stored

– Intermediate processing results

– Data
– Programs

• Characteristics of storage devices vary widely

– Cost
– Access speed
– Reliability
Input/Output Capability
Must encompass many
communication modes

For humans:
Sound, text, and graphics

For other computers:

Electronic or optical
communication
The Primary Functions
of Computer Hardware
 Components of
a Computer System
 Central Processing Unit
• General-purpose processor

– Executes all instructions

• computation functions

• comparison functions

– Directs all data movement

 Components of
The Central Processing Unit
 CPU Components
Arithmetic logic • Contains electrical circuits that
unit (ALU) implement each instruction

Registers • Internal storage locations that can

each hold a single instruction or data
item

Control unit • Controls movement of data to and

from CPU
• Accesses program instructions and
issues appropriate commands to ALU
 System Bus
• Internal communication channel that connects
all other hardware devices

• Primary pathway for moving data and

instructions among hardware components

• Capacity is critical to performance,

secondary storage, and I/O device
performance
 Primary Storage
(Main Memory)
• Holds program instructions and data for
currently executing programs

• Implemented with random access memory

(RAM)
– Provides access speed and allows CPU to
read or write to specific memory locations
– Volatile; does not provide permanent
storage
 Secondary Storage
• Composed of high-capacity nonvolatile
storage devices that hold:

– Programs not currently being executed

– Data not needed by currently executing

programs

– Data needed by currently executing

programs that does not fit within available
primary storage
Comparison of Storage Types
 Input/Output Devices
• Implement external communication functions

• Human-oriented communication devices

(e.g., keyboard, mouse, printer)

• Computer-oriented communication devices

(e.g., modem, network interface unit)
 Computer System Classes
Microcomputer • Meets information processing needs of
single user
Midrange • Supports many programs and users
computer simultaneously
Mainframe • Handles information processing needs of
large number of users and applications
• Designed for large amounts of data
storage and access
Supercomputer • Designed for rapid mathematical
computation
Multicomputer Configurations
• Any organization of multiple computers to
support a specific set of services or
applications

• Common configurations
– Cluster
– Blade
– Grid
 Cluster
• Group of similar or identical computers that
cooperate to provide services or execute a
common application
– Connected by high-speed network
– Typically located close to one another

• Advantages: scalability and fault tolerance

• Disadvantages: complex configuration and

administration
 Blade
• Circuit board that contains most of a server
computer; a specialized cluster

• Same advantages and disadvantages as a

cluster, but also:
– Concentrate more computing power in less
space
– Are simpler to modify
 Grid
• Group of dissimilar computer systems,
connected by high-speed network, that
cooperate to provide services or execute a
common application

• Computers may be in separate rooms,

buildings, or continents

• Computers work cooperatively at some times,

independently at others
Bigger Isn’t Always Better
• Grosch’s Law (1952) has been rewritten due
to:
– Multiple classes of computers
– Expanded abilities to configure computers
for specific purposes
– Increased software costs relative to
hardware costs
– Large computer databases
– Widespread adoption of graphical user
interfaces
– Multicomputer configurations
 Business Computer Options
“Do We Need A Mainframe?”
• A business finds that its old IBM RS/6000 S70
Midrange computer is overloaded with work. The
problem needs to be solved.

• Options:

– 1: Purchase more RS/6000 systems,

used, since they are no longer made
– 2: Upgrade to IBM’s latest mainframes,
the pSeries 670 or 69 systems
– 3: Develop a scalable hardware platform
• IBM blade servers
• a cluster of IBM midrange systems
 The Role of Software
• Translates user requests into machine
instructions

• Performs complex translation process that

bridges two gaps
– Human language to machine language
(binary)
– High-level abstraction to low-level detail
The Role of Software
 Software Types
Application • Stored set of instructions for responding
programs to a specific information-processing tasks
• Used directly by end users

Utility • Contains instructions for performing

programs general-purpose tasks
• Usually operates invisibly in the background

System • Implements utility functions needed by

software many application programs
• Allocates computer resources to application
programs
• Manages computer resources
• Does not interact with end users
System Layers
System Software Layers
Software/Hardware Layers
 Operating Systems
• Most important system software component

• Collection of utility programs that provides:

– Administrative utilities
– Utility services to application programs
– Resource allocation functions
– Direct control over hardware
Operating System Functions
• Program storage, loading, and execution

• File manipulation and access

• Secondary storage management

• Network and interactive user interfaces

 Application Development
Software
• Programs used to develop other programs

• Types
– Program translators
– Program editors
– Debugging tools
– System development tools
Economics of System and
Application Development
Software
• System software consumes hardware
resources

• Cost per unit of computing power has rapidly

decreased

• Software is more cost-effective when

reused many times
 The Relative Cost of
Hardware vs. Software
 Intel CPUs and
Microsoft Operating Systems
Software Depends on Hardware

Once hardware has been developed,

the capabilities of the software packages
can be increased to take advantage
of the hardware capabilities.

The development of the Intel microprocessors

(from the 80386 to the Itanium) parallels
the development of Microsoft Windows and
the application software that it supports.

This comes from cooperation

between Intel and Microsoft.
 Computer Networks
• Set of hardware and software components
that enable multiple users and computer
systems to share information, software, and
hardware resources

• Enables many types of personal

communication
Computer Networks
 External Resources
• Ability to share data, programs, and
hardware resources among computers

• Gives modern organizations flexibility to

deploy and redeploy computing and
information resources to satisfy rapidly
changing needs
 Network Software
• Finds requested resources on the network

• Negotiates resource access with distant

resource allocation software

• Receives and delivers resources to requesting

user or program

• May also listen for and validate resource

requests, and deliver resources via the
network
Network Communication and the
Physical Network
• Network communication devices
– Simpler than I/O devices; do not need to
convert data represented electronically
into another form
– Must support communication at high
speeds

• Physical network
– Complex combination of communication
protocols, methods of data transmission,
and network hardware devices
 Summary
• Basic elements of computer system
architecture
– Hardware
– Software
– Networks

• Importance of knowing how all components of

a computer system interrelate as well as
their internal workings

• Further Readings or Resources: See

http://averia.mgt.unm.edu
for an up-to-date list of reference
materials.
 Chapter Goals
• Discuss the development of automated computing
• Describe the general capabilities of a computer
• Describe computer system components and their
functions
• List computer system classes and their
distinguishing characteristics
• Define the role and function of application and
system software
• Describe the economic role of system and
application development software
• Describe the components and functions of
computer networks