Data and Signals
Data and Signals
3.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Data and Signals
TDC 361
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Analog vs. Digital Signals
Signals can be interpreted as either analog or
digital
In reality, all signals are analog
Analog signals are continuous, non-discrete
Digital signals are non-continuous, discrete
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Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals
3.4
Time domain concepts
Continuous signal
Infinite number of points at any given time
Discrete signal
Finite number of points at any given time; maintains a
constant level then changes to another constant level
Periodic signal
Pattern repeated over time.
The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle
Aperiodic (non-periodic) signal
Pattern not repeated over time
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Time domain concepts
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Figure 3.2 A sine wave
3.7
Signal Properties
All signals are composed of three properties:
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
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Note
The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute
value of its highest intensity, proportional to
the energy it carries.
For electric signals, peak amplitude is
normally measured in volts
3.9
Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
3.10
Note
3.11
Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies
3.12
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency
3.13
Example 3.3
3.14
Example 3.5
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10 −3
kHz).
3.15
Note
3.16
Note
3.17
Note
3.18
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases
3.19
Example 3.6
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is
3.20
Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
3.21
Example 3.7
3.22
Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
3.23
A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data
communications; we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves
If we had only one single sine wave to convey a
conversation over the phone, it would make no sense
and carry no information
If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition
gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the
composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives
a combination of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.
3.24
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains
3.25
Figure 3.11 The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal, such
someone speaking into a microphone
3.26
Note
3.27
Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals
Note: each
frequency is
identifiable
Note:
frequencies
the place
3.28
Example 3.10
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure 3.13).
3.29
Figure 3.13 The bandwidth for Example 3.10
3.30
Example 3.12
Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain
and the bandwidth.
3.31
Figure 3.15 The bandwidth for Example 3.12
3.32
3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level. In general, if a signal has L levels, each
level needs log2L bits.
3.34
Example 3.16
3.35
Bit Rate
• Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not
appropriate characteristics.
• Another term—bit rate (instead of frequency)—is used to describe digital signals.
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).
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3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
3.37
Attenuation means a loss of energy.
When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the
resistance of the medium.
That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if
not hot, after a while.
Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted
to heat.
To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to
amplify the signal
3.38
Figure 3.26 Attenuation (the first impairment)
3.39
Decibels
40
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR or S/N)
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Example 3.28
3.42
Figure 3.27 Decibels for Example 3.28
3.43
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different
frequencies.
Each signal component has its own propagation speed (see the next
section) through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving
at the final destination.
In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases
different from what they had at the sender.
The shape of the composite signal is therefore not the same.
3.44
Figure 3.28 Distortion (the second impairment)
3.45
Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such
as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may
corrupt the signal.
Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which
creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission
medium acts as the receiving antenna.
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
One wire acts as a sending antenna and the other as the receiving
antenna.
Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very short
time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.
3.46
Figure 3.29 Noise (the third impairment)
3.47
Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
3.48
Example 3.32
3.49