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Note 1

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Nuhu Adamu
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Cryptography & Network


Security
What is Cryptography?
• Cryptography derived its name from a Greek word
called “krypto’s” which means “Hidden Secrets”.
• Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding
information. It is the Art or Science of converting a
plain intelligible data into an unintelligible data and
again retransforming that message into its original
form.
• It provides Confidentiality, Integrity, and
Accuracy.

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Purpose of Cryptography
• Authentication: The process of proving one's identity. (The
primary forms of host-to-host authentication on the Internet
today are name-based or address-based, both of which are
notoriously weak.)
• Privacy/confidentiality: Ensuring that no one can read the
message except the intended receiver.
• Integrity: Assuring the receiver that the received message has
not been altered in any way from the original.
• Non-repudiation: A mechanism to prove that the sender
really sent this message.

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Classical Encryption
Techniques
Classical encryption techniques
• Encryption :-
– Encryption is something like making a secret letter by
changing, swapping or replacing characters in
previously defend order. The format of the message is
not changed.
• Encoding :-
– In coding the format of data is changed. For example
we record a voice sample, the recorder will encode
the analog voice signals into digital signals & store.

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Basic terminology
• Plaintext: original message to be
encrypted
• Ciphertext: the encrypted message
• Enciphering or encryption: the process of
converting plaintext into ciphertext
• Encryption algorithm: performs encryption
– Two inputs: a plaintext and a secret key

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Symmetric Cipher Model

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• Deciphering or decryption: recovering
plaintext from ciphertext
• Decryption algorithm: performs decryption
– Two inputs: ciphertext and secret key

• Secret key: same key used for encryption


and decryption
– Also referred to as a symmetric key

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• Cipher or cryptographic system : a scheme
for encryption and decryption
• Cryptography: science of studying ciphers
• Cryptanalysis: science of studying attacks
against cryptographic systems
• Cryptology: cryptography + cryptanalysis

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Ciphers
• Symmetric cipher: same key used for
encryption and decryption
– Block cipher: encrypts a block of plaintext at a
time (typically 64 or 128 bits)
– Stream cipher: encrypts data one bit or one byte
at a time
• Asymmetric cipher: different keys used for
encryption and decryption

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Symmetric Encryption
• or conventional / secret-key / single-key
• sender and recipient share a common key
• all classical encryption algorithms are
symmetric

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Symmetric Encryption
• Mathematically:
Y = EK(X) or Y = E(K, X)
X = DK(Y) or X = D(K, Y)
• X = plaintext
• Y = ciphertext
• K = secret key
• E = encryption algorithm
• D = decryption algorithm
• Both E and D are known to public

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Cryptanalysis
• Objective: to recover the plaintext of a ciphertext
or, more typically, to recover the secret key.
• Kerkhoff’s principle: the opponent knows all
details about a cryptosystem except the secret
key.
• Two general approaches:
– brute-force attack
– non-brute-force attack (cryptanalytic attack)

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Brute-Force Attack
• Try every key to decipher the ciphertext.
• On average, need to try half of all possible keys
• Time needed proportional to size of key space
Key Size (bits) Number of Alternative Time required at 1 Time required at 106
Keys decryption/µs decryptions/µs

32 232 = 4.3  109 231 µs = 35.8 minutes 2.15 milliseconds

56 256 = 7.2  1016 255 µs = 1142 years 10.01 hours

128 2128 = 3.4  1038 2127 µs = 5.4  1024 years 5.4  1018 years

168 2168 = 3.7  1050 2167 µs = 5.9  1036 years 5.9  1030 years

26 characters 26! = 4  1026 2  1026 µs = 6.4  1012 years 6.4  106 years
(permutation)

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Cryptanalytic Attacks
• May be classified by how much information
needed by the attacker:
– Ciphertext-only attack
– Known-plaintext attack
– Chosen-plaintext attack
– Chosen-ciphertext attack

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