20CHT33- FLUID MECHANICS

⮚ UNIT II: INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN PIPES AND

CHANNELS

⮚ Types of flow – Boundary layer formation; Basic equation of fluid

flow: Equation of Continuity-Bernoulli’s equation and
applications; Shear stress distribution - laminar and turbulent flow
in pipes and closed channels; Friction factor- Moody’s Chart

*
Types of Fluid Flow
✔ Real and ideal flow
✔ Steady and unsteady flow
✔ Uniform and non-uniform flow
✔ One, two and three dimensional flow
✔ Laminar and turbulent flow
✔ Rotational and irrotational flow

2
 1. Real and Ideal Flow:

If the fluid is considered frictionless with zero viscosity it is called

.ideal

In real fluids the viscosity is considered and shear stresses occur

causing conversion of mechanical energy into thermal energy

Ideal
Real
Friction = 0 Friction = o
Ideal Flow ( μ =0) Real Flow ( μ ≠0)
Energy loss =0 Energy loss = 0
 Steady and Unsteady Flow .2
)Classification based on variation in fluid properties with time (
Steady flow occurs when conditions of a point in a flowing fluid don’t
change with respect to time ( various characteristics such as v, p,
H…..changes ) w.r.t. time
steady

unsteady

H ≠ constant
H=constant

V=constant V ≠ constant

Steady Flow with respect to time Unsteady Flow with respect to time
•Velocity is constant at certain •Velocity changes at certain position
position w.r.t. time w.r.t. time
 Uniform and Non uniform Flow .3
)Classification based on variation in fluid velocity with position of the fluid particle (

Y Y

x x

Uniform Flow: The flow is said to be Non- uniform Flow: The flow is said to
uniform ,If the velocity of fluid particle be non-uniform ,If the velocity of fluid
does not change, both in magnitude particle changes, both in magnitude and
and direction, from point to point in direction, from point to point in the flowing
the flowing fluid, for any given instant fluid, for any given instant time.
time.
uniform

Non-uniform
Combined flows:
All the above types of flow can exist dependent of each other, hence
the combination of any of the above four flows is possible, viz
⮚ Steady uniform flow (ex. Flow of liquid through long pipe of constant
diameter at a constant rate).
⮚ Steady non-uniform flow (ex . Flow of liquid through long pipe line of
uniform diameter at either increasing or decreasing rate).
⮚ Un Steady uniform flow (ex. Flow of liquid through a tapering pipe at
a constant rate).
⮚ Un Steady non-uniform flow (ex. Flow of liquid through a tapering
pipe either increasing or decreasing rate).
 4. One , Two and three Dimensional Flow : y

One dimensional flow means that Two dimensional flow means that
the flow velocity is function of one the flow velocity is function
coordinate of two coordinates
V = f( X or Y or Z ) V = f( X,Y or X,Z or Y,Z )

Three dimensional flow means that

the flow velocity is function
of three coordinates
V = f( X,Y,Z)
 4. One , Two and three Dimensional Flow (cont.)
.A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity
.varies in one, two, or three dimensions, respectively
However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small
.relative to the variation in other directions and can be ignored

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in
.the flow direction, V = V(r)
 5. Laminar and Turbulent Flow:

:In Laminar Flow :In Turbulent Flow

•Fluid flows in separate layers (flow is •No separate layers ((flow is non-Uniform)
Uniform) •Rapid and Continuous mass mixing
•No mass mixing between fluid layers •Friction mainly between fluid and pipe
•Friction mainly between fluid layers walls
•Reynolds’ Number (Re ) < 2100 •Eddies or vortices present over long
distances
•Reynolds’ Number (Re ) > 4000

Vmean Vmean

Vmax Vmax
5. Laminar and Turbulent Flow (cont.):
 6.Rotational and irrotational flows

⮚ Rotational flow:
A fluid flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles, while
flowing in the direction of flow, rotate about their mass centres.
e.g. In case of flow of fluid in rotating centrifuge bowl, the
velocity of each particle varies directly as the distance from the
centre of rotation.
⮚ Irrotational flow:
A fluid flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particle while
moving in the direction of flow do not rotate about their mass
centers.
:
 7. Streamline:

⮚ Streamline is everywhere tangent to the velocity vector, there can be

no component of velocity at right angles to the stream line. Hence
there can be no flow of fluid across any streamline.
⮚ For a steady flow:
There is no change in the direction of velocity vector at any
point i.e. flow pattern is not changing (steady state streamline pattern
at different times)
⮚ For a unsteady flow:
Direction of velocity vector at any point may change with
time (the streamline pattern change from time to time)
NASCAR surface pressure contours Airplane surface pressure contours,
and streamlines volume streamlines, and surface
streamlines
 8. Stream tube:

⮚ A stream tube is a tube imagined to be formed by a group of

streamlines passing through a small closed channel which may or
may not be circular.
⮚ Since the stream tube is bounded on all sides by streamlines, and
since the fluid velocity has no component normal to a stream line ,
there can be no flows across a stream tube.
⮚ Therefore a fluid may enter or leave a stream tube only at its ends.
 Streamtube:

• Is a bundle of streamlines
• fluid within a streamtube remain constant
and cannot cross the boundary of the streamtube.

(mass in = mass out)

 Potential flow

⮚ Potential flow can exist at distances not for from a solid

boundary.
Potential flow has two important characteristics
✔ Neither circulations nor eddies can form with in the
streams, so that potential flow also called irrotational
flow
✔ Friction cannot develop, so that there is no
dissipation of mechanical energy in to heat.
BASIC EQUATIONS OF FLUID FLOW
In applications of fluid mechanics, the most useful
equations are based on the principles of

✔ Mass balance or Continuity equation

✔ Momentum balance or Equation of motion
✔ Mechanical energy equation

The equations may be written in differential form,

showing conditions at a point within a volume element of
fluid, or in integrated form applicable to a finite volume or
mass of fluid.
 Mass balance or Continuity equation
⮚ It is a mathematical expression for the law of conservation of mass.
According to the law of conservation of mass for a steady flow
system,
⮚ The rate of mass entering the flow system is equal to that
leaving as accumulation is either constant or nil in the flow
system under steady conditions.
⮚ Consider a flow system (a stream tube of varying cross-section) as
shown in fig.
Continuity equation
⮚ As the flow cannot take place across the walls of the stream tube,
the rate of mass entering the stream tube must be equal to that
leaving.

⮚ Let V1, 1, and A1 be the average velocity of the fluid , density of the
fluid and cross-section area of the tube at the entrance.

⮚ Let V2, 2, and A2 be the average velocity of the fluid , density of the
fluid and cross-section area of the tube at the exit of the tube.

⮚ assume that the flow to be potential flow and the density to be

constant in a single cross-section.

✔ rate of mass entering the flow system = V1 1 A1

✔ rate of mass leaving the flow system = V2 2 A2
Continuity equation

⮚ Under steady flow conditions, according to the law of conservation of

mass , the mass of fluid entering the tube in unit time is the same as
that leaving the tube. Therefore

m. = V1 1 A1 = V2 2 A2

The above equation is known as equation of continuity. It is

applicable to compressible as well as to incompressible fluids.
In the case of incompressible fluids 1 = 2 =

The equation of continuity is useful for calculating the velocity of

Continuity equation
⮚ Problem
A 400 mm diameter pipe branches in to two pipes of diameters
200 mm and 250 mm respectively. If the average velocity in the
400 mm diameter pipe is 2.2 m/s. find the discharge in this
pipe. Also determine the velocity in 250 mm pipe, if the
average velocity in 200 mm diameter pipe is 2.6 m/s.
Bernoulli’s Equation and its applications
Bernoulli’s equation ( Mechanical energy equation)
✔ An important relation called Bernoulli’s equation without friction can
be derived on the basis of Newton’s second law of motion for
potential flow.
✔ It is simply an energy balance
✔ The variation of velocity across a given cross-section, effect of
frictional force are neglected at first and corrections for the same are
then made in equation.
✔ Thus, the relation that will be obtained is strictly applicable to an
inviscid (frictionless) fluid.
 Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ Statement
✔ Bernoulli’s Equation states that in a steady irrotational flow of an
incompressible fluid, the total energy (sum of pressure, kinetic
and potential energy) at any point is constant.
✔ The sum of the pressure head, velocity head and potential head
is known as the total head or total energy per unit weight of the
fluid.
⮚ Assumptions
✔ The fluid is incompressible and non-viscous
✔ There is no energy lose due to friction between fluid and wall of
the pipe
✔ The fluid flow is laminar and steady state
✔ The velocity ‘u’ be constant over the area A.
 Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ Let cross-sectional area of element be ‘A’
Density of the fluid be ‘ ‘
‘u’ and ‘p’ be the velocity and pressure at the entrance (up stream)
and ‘u+Δu’ and ‘p+ Δp’ are corresponding quantities at the exit
(down stream). The forces acting on the element (treating the
element as free body) are
✔ The force from the upstream pressure = pA
(I.e. the force acting in direction of flow, taken as +)
✔ The force from the downstream pressure normal to the cross-
section of the tube = (p+ Δp) A
(I.e. the force opposing the direction of flow, taken as -)
✔ The force from the weight of fluid (I.e. the force of gravity acting
downward, taken as negative = AΔL.g
Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ The component of the force acting opposite to the direction of flow is
= AΔL.g cos
⮚ Of the three forces acted above, the first one helps the flow while the
remaining two forces oppose the flow.
⮚ Force balance for potential flow
⮚ According to Newton’s second law of motion
{sum of all forces acting in the direction of flow} = {rate of change of
momentum of fluid}
 Correction in Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ Kinetic energy correction:
✔ In the previous discussion, it is assumed that the velocity ‘u’ to be
constant over the area ‘A’ but in actual practice, the velocity
varies over a single cross section and we have a velocity profile
over the cross section.
✔ The velocity of fluid is zero at the wall surface and maximum at
the centre of the pipe. Hence allowance must be made for the
velocity profile in the kinetic energy term.
✔ This can be done by introducing correction factor ‘α’ in to the
kinetic energy term. The kinetic energy term would be written as
αu2/2
✔ For flow of a fluid through a circular cross-section α=2 for laminar
flow, α=1 for turbulent flow
 Correction in Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ Correction for fluid friction:
✔ The Bernoulli’s Equation is derived for the frictionless fluid.
Therefore, it must be corrected for the existence of the fluid
friction whenever boundary layer forms.
✔ Fluid friction is an irreversible conversion of mechanical energy in
to heat. Thus the quantity pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy is not constant but always decreases in the
direction of flow.
✔ The Bernoulli’s Equation for incompressible fluids is corrected for
friction by adding a friction term on the R.H.S of equation 12
✔ The Bernoulli’s Equation between stations 1 and 2 after making
necessary corrections in terms of energy per unit mass (J/Kg) is
 Correction in Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ Pump work in Bernoulli’s Equation:
✔ A pump is installed in a flow system for increasing the mechanical
energy of fluid to maintain its flow

✔ Let ‘wp’ be the work done by the pump per unit mass of fluid
‘hfp’ be the total friction in the pump per unit mass of
fluid (in bearings, stuffing box, sealings)
✔ Therefore the net mechanical energy delivered to the flowing fluid
is the difference between mechanical energy supplied to the
pump and frictional loss with in the pump. (wp - hfp)

✔ To obtain net mechanical energy delivered to fluid, a pump

efficiency designated by the symbol ‘ƞ’ is used
It is defined as w - hf = ƞ w
Correction in Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ ‘Ƞ’ is always less than one, the mechanical energy delivered to the
fluid ‘ƞ wp ‘ is less than the work done by the pump.

⮚ The Bernoulli’s Equation corrected for the pump work between

sections 1 and 2 is thus given by
Bernoulli’s Equation
⮚ Problem
The discharge through a horizontal pipe is 60 lit/s. the diameter of
inlet and outlet are 25 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the water enters
at a pressure of 1 Kgf/cm2. determine the pressure at which leaves.
 FRICTION FACTOR

Friction factor is defined as the ratio of the wall shear stress to the
product of the density and the velocity head (V2/2).It is denoted by ‘f’’
and commonly known as fanning friction factor.
Mathematically,
f=

f=

Where, f – fanning friction factor

- wall shear stress
- density of fluid
(V2/2) – velocity head.
BOUNDARY LAYER FORMATION IN PIPES

⮚ Consider a straight, thin walled tube with the fluid entering it at

a uniform velocity. As shown in the figure a boundary layer
begins to form at the entrance to the tube, and as the fluid
moves through the first part of the channel, the layer thickens.
⮚ During this stage the boundary layer occupies only part of the
cross section of the tube, and the total stream consists of a
core of fluid flowing in rod like manner at constant velocity and
an annular boundary layer between the wall and the core.
⮚ In the boundary layer the velocity increases from zero at the
wall to the constant velocity existing in the core.
⮚ As the stream moves farther down the tube, the boundary
layer occupies an increasing portion of the cross section.
⮚ Finally, at a point well downstream from the entrance, the
boundary layer reaches the centre of the tube, the rod like
core disappears, and the boundary layer occupies the entire
cross section of the stream.
⮚ At this point the velocity distribution in the tube reaches its
final form, as shown by the last curve at the right of the above
figure and remains unchanged during the remaining length of
the tube. Such flow with an unchanging velocity distribution is
called fully developed flow.
 14CHT33- FLUID MECHANICS

⮚ UNIT II: PRINCIPLES OF FLUID FLOW

⚫ Types of flow
⚫ Equation of continuity
⚫ Bernoulli’s equation and its applications
⚫ Friction factor
⚫ Boundary layer concept
⚫ Shear stress distribution
⚫ Laminar flow in pipes and closed channels
⚫ Turbulent flow in pipes and closed channels
⚫ Moody chart
⚫ Problems