18ME501 -Metrology and

Instrumentation
Topic : Introduction ,Types of
Measuring system , Standards and
Methods of Measurement.
 Metrology……
• Metrology not only deals with the establishment, reproduction,
protection, maintenance, and transfer or conversion of units of
measurements and their standards.
• It is also concerned with the correctness of measurement.

Types of Metrology :

1 . Legal Metrology
2. Dynamic Metrology
3. Deterministic Metrology
Legal Metrology :
• Legal metrology applies to any application of metrology that is subjected
to National laws or regulations.
• It will be mandatory and legal bindings on the units and methods of
measurements and measuring instruments.
• The scope of legal metrology may vary considerably from one country to
another.
• Legal metrology ensures the conservation of national standards and
• guarantees their accuracy in comparison with the international standards,
• Thereby imparting proper accuracy to the secondary standards of the
country.
Applications:
• Industrial measurement, commercial transactions, and public health and
human safety aspects.
Dynamic Metrology :
• A group of techniques employed for measuring small variations that are of
a continuous nature is termed as ‘dynamic metrology’.
Applications:
• Recording continuous measurements over a surface and have obvious
advantages over individual measurements of a distinctive character.

Deterministic Metrology :
• One of the more modern philosophies in which process measurement
replaces by part measurement.
Applications:
• The new techniques such as 3D error compensation by CNC (Computer
Numerical Control) systems and expert systems are applied, leading to
fully adaptive control.
• This technology is adopted in high-precision manufacturing machinery
and control systems to accomplish micro and nanotechnology accuracies.
 Objectives of metrology
The basic objective of a measurement is to provide the required accuracy at a
minimum cost.

1.Complete evaluation of newly developed products.

2.Determination of Process Capabilities.

3.Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that

they are quite sufficient for their respective measurements.

4.Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available

facilities.
 Objectives of metrology..
5. Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application of
statistical quality control techniques.

6. To standardize the measuring methods.

7. To maintain the accuracies of measurement.

8. To prepare design for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.

 General Measurement Concept

• Measurand, a physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to be

measured
• Comparator, to compare the measurand (physical quantity) with a known
standard (reference) for evaluation.
• Reference, the physical quantity or property to which quantitative
comparisons are to be made, which is internationally accepted
 General Measurement Concept…….
• All these three elements would be considered to explain the direct
measurement using a calibrated fixed reference.
• In order to determine the length (a physical quantity called measurand)
of the component, measurement is carried out by comparing it with a
steel scale (a known standard).
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
1. Direct Method:
• In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly compared with the
primary or secondary standard.
• This method is widely employed in the production field.
• In this Method a very slight difference exists between the actual and the
measured values of the quantity.
Example : Scales, vernier calipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are
used in the direct method.
 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT
Definition :
• A standard is defined as the fundamental value of any known physical
quantity, as established by national and international organizations of
authority, which can be reproduced.

• Standards play a vital role for manufacturers across the world in achieving
consistency, accuracy, precision, and repeatability in measurements and
in supporting the system that enables the manufacturers to make such
measurements.
 National Physics Laboratory

• The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) was established in UK in 1900. It is

a public institution for standardizing and verifying instruments, testing
materials, and determining physical constants.
• NPL India (NPLI) was established in 1947 in New Delhi under the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
• NPLI is also responsible for maintaining national standards of
measurements and ensuring that they conform to international standards.
It is established to support industries and national and private agencies in
their research and development activities by carrying out calibration and
testing, precision measurements, and development of processes and
devices.
 Line Standard
• If the distance is measured as the length between 2 parallel lines it is
called line standard. Examples: The scale is a good example for line
standard. A scale with divisions shown as lines is used as the
measurement.
 Characteristics of Line standard
1. Measurements carried out using a scale are quick and easy and can be
used over a wide range.
2. Even though scales can be engraved accurately, it is not possible to take
full advantage of this accuracy. The engraved lines themselves possess
thickness, making it difficult to perform measurements with high
accuracy.
3. The markings on the scale are not subjected to wear. Under sizing occurs
as the leading ends are subjected to wear.
4. A scale does not have a built-in datum, which makes the alignment of the
scale with the axis of measurement difficult. This leads to under sizing.
5. Scales are subjected to parallax effect, thereby contributing to both
positive and negative reading errors.
6. A magnifying lens or microscope is required for close tolerance length
measurement.
 End Standard
• When the length is measured as the distance between 2 faces, it is known
as the end standards.
• Examples:- Slip gauges, micrometer anvil, vernier calliper etc.
 Characteristics of End standard
1. These standards are highly accurate and ideal for making close tolerance
measurement.
2. They measure only one dimension at a time, thereby consuming more
time.
3. The measuring faces of end standards are subjected to wear.
4. They possess a built-in datum because their measuring faces are flat and
parallel and can be positively located on a datum surface.
5. Groups of blocks/slip gauges are wrung together to create the required
size; faulty wringing leads to inaccurate results.
6. End standards are not subjected to parallax errors, as their use depends on
the feel of the operator.
7. Dimensional tolerance as close as 0.0005 mm can be obtained.
 Wavelength Standard
• By using wavelengths of a monochromatic light as a natural and invariable
unit of length, the dependency of the working standard on the physical
standard can be eliminated.
• The definition of a standard of length relative to the metre can easily be
expressed in terms of the wavelengths of light.
• Cadmium 114, krypton 86, and mercury 198 are possible sources of
radiation of wavelengths suitable for the natural standard of length.
• There is no need to preserve the wavelength standard as it is not a
physical one. This standard of length is reproducible, and the error of
reproduction can be of the order of 1 part in 100 million.
 Wavelength Standard
• It was recommended and decided that krypton 86 is the most suitable
element if used in a hot cathode discharge lamp maintained at a
temperature of 68K.
• According to this standard, metre is defined as 1,650,763.73
×wavelengths
of the red–orange radiation of a krypton 86 atom in vacuum.
• This standard can be reproduced with an accuracy of about 1 part in 10 9
• and can be accessible to any laboratory.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

1. Direct Method:
• In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly compared with the
primary or secondary standard. Scales, vernier calipers, micrometers, bevel protractors,
etc.,are used in the direct method..
• This method is widely employed in the production field.
• In the direct method, a very slight difference exists between the actual and the
measured values of the quantity.
• This difference occurs because of the limitation of the human being performing the
measurement.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

2.In Direct Method:

• In this method, the value of a quantity is obtained by measuring other
quantities that are functionally related to the required value.
Measurement of the quantity is carried out directly and then the value is
determined by using a mathematical relationship.
• Examples of indirect measurement are angle measurement using sine
bar, measurement of strain induced in a bar due to the applied force,
determination of effective diameter of a screw thread, etc.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

3.Absolute or Fundamental method:

It is based on the measurement of the base quantities used to define the
quantity.

Example : measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the definition of

that quantity, or measuring a quantity indirectly by direct measurement of
the quantities linked with the definition of the quantity to be measured.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

4.Comparative Method:
• In this method, as the name suggests, the quantity to be measured is
compared with the known value of the same quantity or any other
quantity practically related to it.
• The quantity is compared with the master gauge and only the deviations
from the master gauge are recorded after comparison.
Examples are comparators, dial indicators, etc.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

5.Transposition Method:
• This method involves making the measurement by direct comparison,
wherein the quantity to be measured (V) is initially balanced by a known value (X) of the same
quantity; next, X is replaced by the quantity to be measured and balanced again by
another known value (Y).
• If the quantity to be measured is equal to both X and Y, then it is equal to

• An example of this method is the determination of mass by balancing methods and known
weights.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

6.Coincidence method
• This is a differential method of measurement wherein a very minute
difference between the quantity to be measured and the reference is
determined by careful observation of the coincidence of certain lines and
signals.
• Measurements on vernier calliper and micrometer are examples of this
method.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

7.Deflection method
• This method involves the indication of the value of the quantity to be
measured directly by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
• Pressure measurement is an example of this method.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

8.Complementary method
• The value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a known
value of the same quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the sum
of these two values is equal to the predetermined comparison value.
• An example of this method is determination of the volume of a solid by
liquid displacement.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

9.Null measurement method:

• In this method, the difference between the value of the quantity to be

measured and the known value of the same quantity with which
comparison is to be made is brought to zero.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

10. Contact method :

• In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or
measuring tip of the instrument.
• Care needs to be taken to provide constant contact pressure in order to
avoid errors due to excess constant pressure.
• Examples of this method include measurements using micrometer,
vernier calliper, and dial indicator.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

11. Contactless method

• As the name indicates, there is no direct contact with the surface to
be measured.
• Examples of this method include the use of optical instruments, tool
maker’s microscope, and profile projector.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT ….

12. Composite method :

• The actual contour of a component to be checked is compared with its
maximum and minimum tolerance limits.
• Cumulative errors of the interconnected elements of the component,
which are controlled through a combined tolerance, can be checked by
this method.
• This method is very reliable to ensure interchangeability and is usually
effected through the use of composite GO gauges. The use of a GO screw
plug gauge to check the thread of a nut is an example of this method.