ARUSHA TECHNICAL COLLEGE

FLUIDS MECHANICS
MET 05207
TUTOR: MAGESA,H
 Description of Module 6
• Code: MET 05207
• Name: Fluids Mechanics
• Number of Credits: 03
• Sub-Enabling Outcomes:
• Explain terms related to properties of fluids.
• State laws of hydrostatics as applied in mechanichal
engineering.
• Explain relationship between properties of fluids and laws of
hydrostatics as applied in mechanical engineering
• Solve forces and pressure related to mechanics of fluids as used
in mechanical engineering
• Calculate centre of pressure and buouyancy as related to fluids
mechanics.
• Solve problems using Bernoulli‟s and continuity equations as
used in fluids mechanics.
 INTRODUCTION
• In general matter can be distinguished by the
physical forms known as solid, liquid, and gas.
• The liquid and gaseous phases are usually
combined and given a common name of fluid.
• Solids differ from fluids on account of their
molecular structure (spacing of molecules and
ease with which they can move).
• The intermolecular forces are large in a solid,
smaller in a liquid and extremely small in gas.
 Fluid mechanics
• Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids at rest or in
motion.
• It has traditionally been applied in such area as the
design of pumps, compressor, design of dam and
canal, design of piping and ducting in chemical
plants, the aerodynamics of airplanes and
automobiles.
• In recent years fluid mechanics is truly a ‘high-tech’
discipline and many exciting areas have been
developed like the aerodynamics of multistory
buildings, fluid mechanics of atmosphere, sports,
and micro fluids.
 DEFINITION OF FLUID
• A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously
under the action of shearing forces, however small
they may be.
• Conversely, it follows that: If a fluid is at rest, there
can be no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all
forces in the fluid must be perpendicular to the
planes upon which they act.
Fluid deforms continuously under the action of a shear force
Shear stress in a moving fluid
• Although there can be no shear stress in a fluid
at rest, shear stresses are developed when the
fluid is in motion, if the particles of the fluid
move relative to each other so that they have
different velocities, causing the original shape
of the fluid to become distorted.
• If, on the other hand, the velocity of the fluid is
same at every point, no shear stresses will be
produced, since the fluid particles are at rest
relative to each other.
Differences between solids and fluids
• The differences between the behaviour of solids and
fluids under an applied force are as follows:
i. For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied
stress, providing that the elastic limit is not
exceeded. For a fluid, the rate of strain is
proportional to the applied stress.
ii. The strain in a solid is independent of the time over
which the force is applied and,if the elastic limit is
not exceeded, the deformation disappears when the
force is removed. A fluid continues to flow as long as
the force is applied and will not recover its original
form when the force is removed.
Differences between liquids and gases
• Although liquids and gases both share the
common characteristics of fluids, they have
many distinctive characteristics of their own.
• A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many
purposes, may be regarded as incompressible.
• A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed
volume, irrespective of the size or shape of its
container, and a free surface is formed if the
volume of the container is greater than that of
the liquid.
Cont,
• A gas is comparatively easy to compress.
• Changes of volume with pressure are large, cannot
normally be neglected and are related to changes of
temperature.
• A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will
expand continuously unless restrained by a
containing vessel. It will completely fill any vessel in
which it is placed and, therefore, does not form a
free surface.

Comparison of Solid, Liquid and Gas

 Systems of Units
• The official international system of units (System
International Units).
• Strong efforts are underway for its universal adoption as
the exclusive system for all engineering and science, but
older systems, particularly the CGS (centimeter-gram-
second) and FPS(foot-pound-second) engineering
gravitational systems are still in use and probably will be
around for some time.
• The chemical engineer finds many physiochemical data
given in CGS units; that many calculations are most
conveniently made in fps units; and that SI units are
increasingly encountered in science and engineering.
• Thus it becomes necessary to be expert in the use of all
three systems.
SI system
 CGS Units
• The older centimeter-gram-second (cgs)
system has the following units for derived
quantities:
 Cont
• Dimensions: Dimensions of the primary
quantities:
Cont,
• Dimensions of derived quantities can be
expressed in terms of the fundamental
dimensions.
 Properties of fluids
• Properties of fluids are as follows :-
i. Mass density or Specific mass ()
ii. Weight density or Specific weight
iii. Specific gravity or Relative density
iv. Specific volume
v. Viscosity
vi. Capillarity
 Properties of fluids
i. Mass density or Specific mass ()
• Mass density or specific mass is the mass per unit
volume of the fluid.

• With the increase in temperature volume of fluid

increases and hence mass density decreases in case
of fluids as the pressure increases volume decreases
and hence mass density increases.
ii. Weight density or Specific weight
• Weight density or Specific weight of a fluid is
the weight per unit volume.

• With increase in temperature volume increases

and hence specific weight decreases.
• With increases in pressure volume decreases
and hence specific weight increases.
Relationship between mass density and
weight density
iii. Specific gravity or Relative density
• It is the ratio of density of the fluid to the
density of a standard fluid.

• Unit: It is a dimensionless quantity and has no

unit.
• In case of liquids water at 4oC is considered as
standard liquid. water = 1000 kg/m3
 iv. Specific volume
• It is the volume per unit mass of the fluid.

• As the temperature increases volume

increases and hence specific volume
increases.
• As the pressure increases volume decreases
and hence specific volume decreases.
Cont
Cont.
 v. Viscosity
• Viscosity is the property by virtue of which fluid
offers resistance against the flow or shear
deformation.
• In other words, it is the reluctance of the fluid to
flow.
• Viscous force is that force of resistance offered by a
layer of fluid for the motion of another layer over it.
• In case of liquids, viscosity is due to cohesive force
between the molecules of adjacent layers of liquid.
In case of gases, molecular activity between
adjacent layers is the cause of viscosity.
 Newton’s law of viscosity

• Consider a liquid between the fixed plate and the

movable plate at a distance ‘Y’ apart, ‘A’ is the
contact area (Wetted area) of the movable plate, ‘F’
is the force required to move the plate with a
velocity ‘U’ According to Newton’s law shear stress is
proportional to shear strain.

Definition diagram of Liquid viscosity

 Cont.

‘  ’ is the constant of proportionality called Dynamic Viscosity or

Absolute Viscosity or Coefficient of Viscosity or Viscosity of the fluid.

‘ ’ is the force required; Per Unit area called ‘Shear Stress’. The
above equation is called Newton’s law of viscosity.
 Velocity gradient or rate of shear strain
• It is the difference in velocity per unit distance
between any two layers.
• If the velocity profile is linear then velocity
gradient is given by .
• If the velocity profile is non – linear then it is
given by
Cont.
 Cont
• Effect of Pressure on Viscosity of fluids:
• Pressure has very little or no effect on the viscosity of
fluids.
• Effect of Temperature on Viscosity of fluids:
i. Effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids: Viscosity
of liquids is due to cohesive force between the
molecules of adjacent layers. As the temperature
increases cohesive force decreases and hence
viscosity decreases.
ii. Effect of temperature on viscosity of gases: Viscosity
of gases is due to molecular activity between adjacent
layers. As the temperature increases molecular
activity increases and hence viscosity increases.
 Kinematics Viscosity
• It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of the fluid
to its mass density.
Variation of Viscosity based on Behaviour of
Liquids
 Cont.

• Plastic: Shear stress must reach a certain minimum before flow

starts.
• Bingham plastic: As with the plastic above a minimum shear stress
must be achieved. With this classification n = 1. An example is
sewage sludge.
• Pseudo-plastic: No minimum shear stress necessary and the
viscosity decreases with rate of shear, e.g. colloidal substances like
clay, milk and cement.
• Dilatant substances; Viscosity increases with rate of shear e.g.
quicksand.
• Thixotropic substances: Viscosity decreases with length of time
shear force is applied e.g. thixotropic jelly paints.
• Rheopectic substances: Viscosity increases with length of time
shear force is applied.
• Viscoelastic materials: Similar to Newtonian but if there is a sudden
large change in shear they behave like plastic.
 Question
• Comments: (i) The dynamic viscosity of
liquid A > the dynamic viscosity of liquid B
• (ii) Both liquids follow Newton’s Law of
Viscosity

Comments:
(i) The dynamic viscosity of liquid A > the dynamic viscosity of liquid B
(ii) Both liquids follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Example
Example
Example
Cont.
Example
 Capillarity
Any liquid between contact surfaces attains curved
shaped surface as shown in figure. The curved
surface of the liquid is called Meniscus.
If adhesion is more than cohesion then the meniscus
will be concave.
If cohesion is greater than adhesion meniscus will be
convex.
 Capillarity is the phenomena
Capillarity is the phenomena by which liquids
will rise or fall in a tube of small diameter
dipped in them.
Capillarity is due to cohesion adhesion and
surface tension of liquids.
If adhesion is more than cohesion then there
will be capillary rise. If cohesion is greater than
adhesion then will be capillary fall or depression.
The surface tensile force supports capillary rise
or depression.
Capillarity is the phenomena
 Angle of contact

Note:
The angle between surface tensile force and the vertical is called
angle of contact.
If adhesion is more than cohesion then angle of contact is obtuse.
 To derive an expression for the capillary
rise of a liquid in small tube dipped in it
Let us consider a small tube of diameter ‘D’ dipped in a
liquid of specific weight . ‘h’ is the capillary rise.
For the equilibrium ,
Vertical force due to surface tension = Weight of column of liquid ABCD
 Cont.
For the equilibrium ,
Vertical force due to surface tension = Weight of column of liquid ABCD

It can be observed that the capillary rise is inversely proportional to

the diameter of the tube.
Note:
The same equation can be used to calculate capillary depression.
In such cases ‘ h ’ will be obtuse ‘h’ works out to be –ve.
 Excess Pressure inside a Water Droplet
Pressure inside a Liquid droplet:
Liquid droplets tend to assume a spherical shape
since a sphere has the smallest surface area per
unit volume.
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be
calculated using a free-body diagram of a
spherical shape of radius R cut in half, as shown
in figure,
 Cont,

And the force developed around the edge of the cut

sphere is 2R.
This force must be balance with the difference between
the internal pressure pi and the external pressure p
acting on the circular area of the cut. Thus
The excess pressure within a Soap bubble
The fact that air has to be blown into a drop of soap
solution to make a bubble should suggest that the
pressure within the bubble is greater than that outside.
This is in fact the case: this excess pressure creates a
force that is just balanced by the inward pull of the
soap film of the bubble due to its surface tension.
 Cont.
Consider a soap bubble of radius r as shown in Figure.
Let the external pressure be Po and the internal pressure P1.
The excess pressure P within the bubble is therefore given
by: Excess pressure p = (P1 – P0)
Consider the left-hand half of the bubble. The force acting
from right to left due to the internal excess pressure can be
shown to be PA, where A is the area of a section through the
centre of the bubble.
If the bubble is in equilibrium this force is balanced by a force
due to surface tension acting from left to right. This force is
2x2πr (the factor of 2 is necessary because the soap film has
two sides) where ‘ ’ is the coefficient of surface tension of
the soap film. Therefore
 Bulk Modulus (K)
When a solid or fluid (liquid or gas) is subjected to a
uniform pressure all over the surface, such that the
shape remains the same, then there is a change in
volume.

Then the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain

within the elastic limits is called as Bulk modulus. This is
denoted by K.
 Cont.
where p = increase in pressure;
V = original volume;
V = change in volume
The negative sign shows that with increase in pressure
p, the volume decreases by V i.e. if p is positive, V is
negative.
The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called
compressibility (C) .

S.I. unit of compressibility is N–1m2 and C.G.S. unit is dyne–1 cm2

 Vapour Pressure
Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which a
liquid will boil (vaporize) and is in equilibrium with its
own vapor .

Vapor pressure rises as temperature rises. For example,

suppose you are camping on a high mountain (say 3,000m
in altitude); the atmospheric pressure at this elevation is
about 70 kPa and the boiling temperature is around 90⁰C.
This has consequences for cooking.
For example, eggs have to be cooked longer at elevation
to become hard-boiled since they cook at a lower
temperature.
 Cont.

A pressure cooker has the opposite effect. Namely, the

tight lid on a pressure cooker causes the pressure to
increase above the normal atmospheric value.
This causes water to boil at a temperature even greater
than 100⁰C; eggs can be cooked a lot faster in a pressure
cooker.
Vapor pressure is important to fluid flows because, in
general, pressure in a flow decreases as velocity
increases.This can lead to cavitation, which is generally
destructive and undesirable.
In particular, at high speeds the local pressure of a
liquid sometimes drops below the vapor pressure of the
liquid. In such a case, cavitation occurs.
 Cont.
In other words, a "cavity" or bubble of vapor appears
because the liquid vaporizes or boils at the location
where the pressure dips below the local vapor pressure.
Cavitation is not desirable for several reasons. First, it
causes noise (as the cavitation bubbles collapse when
they migrate into regions of higher pressure).
Second, it can lead to inefficiencies and reduction of heat
transfer in pumps and turbines (turbo machines).
Finally, the collapse of these cavitation bubbles causes
pitting and corrosion of blades and other surfaces nearby.
The left figure below shows a cavitating propeller in a
water tunnel, and the right figure shows cavitation
damage on a blade.
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Cont. soln
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