Cell Division

Lesson 25
A0001F Applied Science

Centre for Foundational Studies (CFS)

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Discussion 1
Cells are the building blocks of living organisms.
a) How do cells, as building blocks, respond to keep up with a person’s physical
growth?
• ?

b) Other than for physical growth, why else do we need new cells?
?

c) Will cells grow in numbers infinitely? Why?

?
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Cell Division
• The fundamental characteristic of life is the ability to grow and the ability to reproduce.
• To ensure the survival of a multi-cellular organism, there is a need for the cell to replace itself,
making copies of itself, i.e. cell division.
• Cell division
̶ a process in which a single cell generates new daughter cells, allowing an organism to grow,
mature and maintain its tissues.
• Types of cell division:
̶ Mitosis (Eukaryotic cell division)
produce identical cells for growth and repair
̶ Meiosis (Eukaryotic cell division)
produce reproductive cells that gives rise to
unique individuals
̶ Binary fission (Prokaryotic cell division)
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Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle consist of all the stages of

Mi t o
growth and division of a eukaryotic cell.

tic p
• All eukaryotic cells go through the same

hase
life cycle, varying in the amount of time
spent in the various stages.
Interphase

• Cell growth stage

 Interphase

• Cell division stage

Watch this video for an overview of Cell cycle before
 Mitotic phase we continue on the details:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0
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Cell Cycle – Interphase

(Cell Growth stage)
• G1 (first gap stage)
̶ Cell grows in size and engages in normal
metabolic activities in this stage
̶ R: some cells may decide not to continue Interphase
and move into the G0 stage
becoming nerve/muscle cells.
• S (synthesis stage)
̶ Each chromosome is replicated and the
Centromere
amount of DNA effectively doubled After replication:
Two sister
chromatids per
Before
chromosome
replication: Replication (identical DNA info)
One
chromatid per
chromosome Impt: Before and
after, still 23 pairs of
Gene chromosomes, as we
DNA replication at cell level count by no. of
centromeres
• G2 (second gap phase) DNA replication at condensed chromosome level

̶ Final preparations and checks before entering the M phase

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Discussion 2
There are 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes shown in the
figure. Have this cell undergone S (synthesis) stage of Interphase?

Spot the color difference! They come in pairs because each is from one parent
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Discussion 3
A cell that has undergone S (synthesis stage) of Interphase will carry
a full set of chromosomes as shown in the following figure. State the
a) no. of chromosomes and
b) no. of chromatids present in this cell.

a) Count the no. of chromosomes by ?.

Hence,

No. of chromosomes
=?

b) Each chromosome now has ? chromatids.

No. of chromatids
=?
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Cell Cycle
– Just after Interphase
After the Interphase, the cell has completed:
 The required growth Mitotic
phase
 DNA replication needed for cell division
 The required final preparations and checks

Before DNA replication After DNA replication

23 pairs of chromosomes 23 pairs of chromosomes
46 chromosomes 46 chromosomes
46 sister chromatids 92 sister chromatids

Within a pair Within a pair

of sister of sister
chromatids, chromatids,
they are they are
identical identical

This pair of chromosomes are not

identical, one from each parent
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Cell Cycle – Mitotic Phase

(Cell Division Stage)
• Mitosis
M1. DNA in the nucleus begins to condense and Mitotic
becomes visible in the light microscope as phase
chromosomes
M2. Spindle and spindle fibers form
M3. Nuclear membrane disassembles
M4. Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes at their centromeres
M5. The spindle fibers align chromosomes along the middle of the cell

Cell from M4/M5. Spindle fibers attach &

Interphase: M2. Spindle & spindle
Nuclear align the chromosomes
membrane fibers form
intact

M3. Nuclear
M1. Chromosomes membrane
Chromosomes are condensed, i.e. visible dissembles
threadlike sister chromatids of
chromosome
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Cell Cycle – Mitotic Phase

(Cell Division Stage)
• Mitosis (Continued)
M6. Shortening of the spindle fibers pulls the sister Mitotic
chromatids apart, moving them towards opposite phase
ends of the cell
M7. Spindle fibers disassemble
M8. Chromosomes start uncoiling
M9. Nuclear membrane re-forms Watch this video on Mitosis (by Amoeba sisters):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-ldPgEfAHI
* The cell now has two identical nuclei
• Cytokinesis
̶ This process splits the cell contents equally and results in two
identical daughter cells which can re-enter into the G1 stage
M8. Chromosomes start
M6. Spindle fibers uncoiling
shorten and Two IDENTICAL
pull the sister daughter cells
chromatids
apart

M7. Spindle fibers

disassemble M9. Nuclear membrane
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Discussion 4

The diagram shows a cell division process by which each single cell
reproduces to result in two identical cells in the next generation.
a) If there are two cells in the first generation, which of the following
scenarios represents the growth of cells via this cell division?

1st generation

2nd generation

b) What is the earliest generation in which there will be at least 100 cells.
(You may assume that there is no cell death, and that each cell divides at each
?
generation interval)
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Cell Division and Sexual Reproduction

• Recap: Mitosis is the process of eukaryotic cell division that
̶ produces new cells for the growth and repair of tissues.
̶ results in two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell.
• Sexual reproduction requires two parents to donate genetic information
when creating offspring. The result is a genetically unique individual.
• Which are the reproductive cells responsible for carrying genetic
information when creating offspring? Sperm and egg
• Since each of us has one full set of genetic information, how much
information should the reproductive cell contain? HALF!
• In that case, can mitosis be used to produce reproductive cells?
NO! Another cell division process is needed  MEIOSIS
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Meiosis
• Meiosis is the process of eukaryotic cell division that
̶ produces the gametes/reproductive cells (i.e. sperm and egg) needed for sexual
reproduction.
̶ results in daughter cells which receive half of each parent cell’s genetic information.
• Since each gamete carries half the genetic information, the full
complement of genetic information is restored after the gametes (sperm
and egg) join during fertilisation.

Egg cell Produced Produced Skin Cell

by which by which
process? process?
MEIOSIS MITOSIS
Picture from:
Picture from: http://thinkingintermsof.scienceblog.com/
http://www.altrui.co.uk/information/egg-cell/ 2015/05/04/the-human-skin-cell/
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Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

Matures and
undergoes
meiosis

An immature egg Cells

cell contains 46 repeatedly
chromosomes divide via
Egg (ovum) mitosis
23 chromosomes

Zygote Embryo
Matures and
undergoes 46 Each cell contain
meiosis chromosomes in 46 chromosomes
Sperm 23 pairs in 23 pairs
23 chromosomes

An immature sperm
cell contains 46 Hence, genetic information in the form of chromosomes
chromosomes from parents are passed on to the offspring during
fertilisation
 the individual produced is hence genetically unique
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Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

• Haploid cells are cells that carry half a set of genetic information
Diploid cells are cells that carry one complete set of genetic information
• Meiosis is the process of cell division that generates haploid
reproductive cells from diploid cells

Since chromosomes contain

DNA, each chromosome has
many genes along the length.

X X

The figure above shows chromosomes from

a human cell. Is it from a male or female?
?
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(Self-read) More about karyotype

A karyotype shows the full set of chromosomes of an individual arranged in sequence.

• Some karyotypes show "single" chromosomes, likely taken during the stage of the cell cycle where the sister
chromatids are separated. [See Figure 1]
• Some karyotypes show "double" chromosomes, likely taken during the stage of the cell cycle where the
chromosomes are replicated. [See Figure 2] In any case, be it represented as
Adapted from: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/diagnose/
'double' or 'single', the human cell
would still have 23 pairs of
chromosomes (i.e. 46
chromosomes in total).
How to count no. of chromosome?
 Look at the centromere!
1 centromere = 1 chromosome

Figure 2
Figure 1

You can try ‘making’ a karyotype here: http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/karyotype

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Meiosis – Homologous Chromosomes

• Diploid cells have one complete set of genetic information, half a set from each parent.
• Each chromosome in a diploid cell can hence be paired to another chromosome on the basis of the
genes on those chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes:
• Made up of chromosome Donated by Donated
pairs of about the same mother by father
length and centromere
position, with genes
Type Gene Type
located in the same A for blood O
corresponding position type
on the chromosomes
• Contains genes of
Free Gene for Attached
the same traits earlobes ear earlobes
shape

• Sister chromatids are identical

• Homologous chromosomes are not
Homologous chromosomes
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Simplified Contrast of Mitosis & Meiosis

Interphase and hence DNA replication in S stage

must occur before both mitosis and meiosis.
Thus, each chromosome has two chromatids.

The more obvious differences

Mitosis Meiosis
Produces Produces
body cells only sex cells only
Daughter cells are Daughter cells are
diploid cells haploid cells
1 cell division only 2 cell divisions
1 parent cell 1 parent cell
divides to form divides to form
2 daughter cells 4 daughter cells
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Discussion 5 (Self-read)

Suppose out of these four chromosomes. Two

were from the father (in blue and red) and two were
from the mother (in purple and orange).

Why is it undesirable if the sets of chromosomes

were just split apart and passed down to the daughter
cells without any changes?
Identical and only has chromatid from mother
Identical and only has chromatid from father

What can be done to ensure that

genes of the same trait are passed
down from both parents?
e.g. cell contains a short chromatid with
some orange (mother) and red (father) on it
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Passing down Genes of the Same Trait

Suppose out of these four chromosomes. Two were

from the father (in blue and red) and two were from
the mother (in purple and orange).

Synapsis and Crossing-over

must take place in Meiosis to allow a
more thorough mixing of genes to be
passed down to the next generation
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Meiosis – Synapsis and Crossing Over

From From
• Synapsis is the pairing of the homologous chromosomes mother father

• Crossing-over
Genes for
− is the exchange of equivalent sections of DNA on different
traits
homologous chromosomes
− Is regulated to ensure no loss or gain in
information  merely exchanged
Type Type
− Can happen many times along the chromosome A O

• As a result of crossing-over, a more thorough mixing of Homologous chromosomes

genes from one generation to the next.

− Each gamete now
carries a unique
chromatid
− Four different gametes
are produced from
meiosis, i.e. provides
for genetic variation Crossing
− Each chromosome contain
over
genes from both parents
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Cell Cycle – Meiosis I

1. DNA in the nucleus condenses and becomes visible as chromosomes
2. Spindle and spindle fibers form
3. Nuclear membrane disassembles
4. Synapsis and crossing-over occurs
5. The spindle fibers attach and align chromosomes randomly along the middle of
the cell as synapsed pairs

Nuclear 1. Chromosomes 5. Aligning

Cell from
membrane condensed 2. Spindle homologous pairs
Interphase:
intact & spindle
fibers form

Chromosomes
are threadlike 3. Nuclear membrane 4. Synapsis and
dissembles
crossing-over
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Cell Cycle – Meiosis I

6. Shortening of the spindle fibers pulls the paired homologous chromosomes
apart, moving them towards opposite ends of the cell
7. Spindle fibers disassemble
8. Chromosomes start uncoiling
9. Nuclear membrane re-forms
* The cell now has two nuclei with different information
8. Cytokinesis splits the cell contents equally and results in two unique haploid cells
which then proceed to Meiosis II

6. Homologous 8. Chromosomes
pairs separate start uncoiling

Two UNIQUE
daughter cells

7. Spindle fibers 9. Nuclear membrane

disassemble
re-forms
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Cell Cycle – Meiosis II

Note: The steps in Meiosis II are the same as that in Mitosis
1. DNA in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in the light
microscope as chromosomes
2. Spindle and spindle fibers form
3. Nuclear membrane disassembles
4. Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes at their centromeres
5. The spindle fibers align chromosomes along the middle of the cell
Cells from
Meiosis I:

2. Spindle & spindle 4/5. Spindle fibers attach

fibers form and align the chromosomes

Two UNIQUE
daughter cells

1. Chromosomes
condensed, i.e. visible 3. Nuclear
sister chromatids of membrane
chromosome dissembles
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Cell Cycle – Meiosis II

6. Shortening of the spindle fibers pulls the sister chromatids apart, moving them
towards opposite ends of the cell
7. Spindle fibers disassemble Watch this video on Meiosis (by Amoeba sisters):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzDMG7ke69
8. Chromosomes start uncoiling g

9. Nuclear membrane re-forms

* Each cell now has two nuclei with different information
10. Cytokinesis splits the cell contents equally and results in four unique haploid cells
(gametes) which can then mature to sperm cells or an egg cell
6. Spindle fibers 8. Chromosomes start
shorten and uncoiling
pull the sister
chromatids apart

Four unique
daughter cells

7. Spindle fibers 9. Nuclear membrane

disassemble re-forms
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Mitosis and
Meiosis
Below are 3 resources Chromosomes
align at the
middle of the
that compare between cell

Mitosis and Meiosis: Meiotic

Division I

Mitotic Division
• Animation Video (Amoeba Sister)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zr
Kdz93WlVk
• Explanation Video (Khan Academy)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQ
J4DBkCnco
• Text/Visual resource
https://www.technologynetworks.com/
cell-science/articles/mitosis-vs-meiosi
s-312017

Meiotic
Division II
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Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
One cell division in the process Two cell divisions in the process
There is no synapsis, i.e. no pairing of Synapsis, i.e. pairing of all homologous
homologous chromosomes chromosomes takes place in meiosis I
There is at least one crossing-over or DNA
There is no crossing-over, i.e. exchange
exchange per homologous pair of
of DNA, between chromosomes
chromosomes in meiosis I
Produces 2 identical daughter cells at Produces 4 unique daughter cells at the
the end of the process end of the process
Daughter cells are diploids Daughter cells are haploids
Daughter cells are identical to the Daughter cells are genetically different
parent cell from the parent cell
Produces body cells Produces gametes/sex cells
Results in growth, replacement of Necessary for sexual reproduction
worn-out cells and repair of damages
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Discussion 6
(Self-read)
What are the visual IDENTICAL FRATERNAL
differences between identical 1 egg 2 eggs
1 sperm 2 sperms
and fraternal twins?
Based on your understanding Zygote 2 different
of cell division, suggest how undergoes
mitosis
zygotes
formed
identical and fraternal twins
are formed. 2 identical 2
embryos different
Identical twins look identical embryos
and are always of the same
gender.
WHY?
Share the
same Separate
Fraternal twins look different placenta placentas
and can be of different
gender.
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Genetic Mutation
• Genetic mutation
̶ is a permanent change in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene
̶ can be inherited (passed down from parents through meiosis)
̶ can be caused by exposure to mutagens (agents that mutate or chemically damage DNA). E.g.
Ionizing radiations (X-rays, gamma rays and ultraviolet light) and chemicals (benzene, arsenic
and bromine)
• Due to genetic mutation, the replication and transcriptional machinery may no
longer be able to read the DNA’s genetic information.
• Mutations occurring in genes that regulate cell division can cause cancer (a
disease caused by the failure to control cell division).
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Controlling Cell Division

Cell division is regulated with checkpoints in the cell cycle.
• At these checkpoints, cells uses proteins produced by specific genes to gather information about
themselves and their environment.
• These information provide signals to wait or to proceed with cell-division.
• If an anomaly is detected, repair work can be triggered. In the case where the damage is beyond
repair, self-destruction of the cell can be triggered.
E.g. the protein produced by the p53 gene identifies if the cell’s DNA is damaged.
Scenario of a normal functioning p53 protein:
Step 3
If repairable, p53 protein
allows cells with repaired
DNA to divide

If un-repairable, p53
triggers the destruction of
cells that are damaged
Step 1 Step 2 beyond repair
DNA damage is Cell division stops and p53
caused by heat, protein triggers enzymes to
radiation or repair damaged region of
chemicals DNA
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Controlling Cell Division

- Nondisjunction
• Nondisjunction occurs when homologous chromosomes do not separate
during meiosis  both homologous chromosomes end up in one gamete.
• An example of the effects of nondisjunction is Down’s syndrome where a
gamete with two no. 21 chromosomes were fertilised with a normal gamete
resulting in a zygote with 47 chromosomes.
Identify the difference between the two sets of chromosomes.

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 12

13 14 15 16 17 13 14 15 16 17
18 18

19 20 21 22 X X 19 20 21 22 X X
A normal set of human chromosomes A set of chromosomes of someone
suffering from Down’s syndrome
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Controlling Cell Division

- Nondisjunction
• Nondisjunction occurs when homologous chromosomes do not separate
during meiosis  both homologous chromosomes end up in one gamete.
• An example of the effects of nondisjunction is Down’s syndrome where a
gamete with two no. 21 chromosomes were fertilised with a normal gamete
resulting in a zygote with 47 chromosomes.
• A child who developed from this
fertilisation has 47 chromosomes
in every cell of his body due to 1 2 3 4 5
mitosis and thus can have the
following symptoms: 6 7 8 9 10 11
12
− thickened eyelids,
− large tongue, 13 14 15 16 17
− flattened facial features, 18

− short stature,
19 20 21 22 X X
− some mental impairment and A set of chromosomes of someone
− faulty speech suffering from Down’s syndrome
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Controlling Cell Division

- Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction of homologous Nondisjunction of sister chromatids in

chromosomes in Meiosis I Meiosis II
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Discussion 7
Fill in the blanks.
?
In ________ ?
there is one cell division and in _______ there are two
cell divisions.

In ________,
? cells with one complete set of genetic information are
produced. In ________,
? cells with half a complete set of genetic
information, i.e. (haploids/diploids) ________,
? are produced.
?
The process used to generate gametes is ________ ?
while ________
produces general body cells.

Cell division processes have to be controlled in case

?
of _______________ which is a permanent change in the DNA
?
sequence. _____________ can also occur causing the incorrect
number of chromosomes passed down in a gamete.
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Learning Outcomes
• Describe the two main stages in cell cycle as cell growth and cell division
• State the role of mitosis and meiosis
• Outline the main stages in mitosis and meiosis
• Differentiate mitosis from meiosis
• State genetic mutation as a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene
which can be inherited or caused by exposure to mutagens like radiation and
chemicals
• Explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in anomalies like cancer and
nondisjunction