Module 3 :

Sampling Process
and
Waveform Coding Techiques
Sampling Process And Waveform Coding

1. Transition from Analog to Digital – Sampling process

2. Pulse-Code Modulation
- Noises in PCM
- SNR of PCM
3. Time Division Multiplexing
4. Differential Pulse-Code Modulation
5. Delta Modulation
6. Adaptive Delta Modulationm
7. Comparison between different waveform coding
Sampling Theorem
for
Band-limited signals

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o The sampling theorem for strictly band-limited signals of
finite energy in two equivalent parts

o Analysis : A band-limited signal of finite energy that has

no frequency components higher than W hertz is completely
described by specifying the values of the signal at instants of
time separated by 1/2W seconds.

o Synthesis : A band-limited signal of finite energy that has

no frequency components higher than W hertz is completely
recovered form knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of
2W samples per second. (using a low pass filter of cutoff
freq. W)

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o Nyquist rate (fs)

The sampling rate of 2W samples per second for a

signal bandwidth of W hertz
o Nyquist interval (Ts)

1/2W (measured in seconds)

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 Types of Sampling Techniques
 There are 3 sampling methods:
Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant

Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude

Flat top - sample and hold, like natural but with single
amplitude value

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 Ideal Sampling (Impulse Sampling)
 It is accomplished by the multiplication of the signal x(t) by
the uniform train of impulses (comb function)

 Consider the instantaneous sampling of the analog signal x(t)

 Train of impulse functions select sample values at regular

intervals

xs (t )  x(t )   (t  nTs )
n 

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 Sampling Process

Signal waveform Sampled waveform

0
0
1 201
1 201

Impulse sampler

0
1 201
Sampling Process in Time Domain

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 Sampling Process in Frequency Domain
 This shows that the Fourier Transform of the sampled signal
is the Fourier Transform of the original signal at rate of 1/Ts

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 As long as fs> 2fm , no overlap of repeated replicas X(f - n/Ts)
will occur in Xs(f)

 Minimum Sampling Condition:

fs  fm  fm  fs  2 fm

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 Aliasing Phenomenon
 The phenomenon of a high-frequency component in the
spectrum of the signal, taking on the identify of a lower
frequency in the spectrum of its sampled version.
 How to avoid effects of aliasing in practices?
 Remedies are :
 Prior to sampling : a low-pass anti-alias filter is used to
attenuate those high-frequency components of a message
signal that are not essential to the information being
conveyed by the signal

 The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher

than the Nyquist rate.
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Aliasing /undersampling of spectrum

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Reconstruction of Analog Signal

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 Reconstruction of Analog signal
 Physically realizable reconstruction filter
 The reconstruction filter is of a low-pass kind with a
passband extending from –W to W

 The filter has a non-zero transition band extending

form W to fs-W

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 One way of recovering the original signal from sampled signal
Xs(f) is to pass it through a Low Pass Filter (LPF) as shown
below.

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Pulse Modulation Schemes

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Pulse Modulation Schemes

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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) System

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Block Diagram of PCM

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 PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation)
 A message signal is represented by a sequence of coded
pulses, which is accomplished by representing the signal in
discrete form in both time and amplitude
 The basic operation
 Transmitter :
- sampling
- quantization
- encoding
 Receiver :
- regeneration
- decoding
- reconstruction 23
 Operation in the Transmitter
1. Sampling
1. The incoming message signal is sampled with a train of
rectangular pulses
2. The reduction of the continuously varying message
signal to a limited number of discrete values per second
2. Quantization

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 Quantization Process
 Process of app. or rounding off

 Quantizer converts : Sampled signal to app. Quantized levels

 Quantized levels are finite set of predicted voltage levels

 Each sampled value is rounded off to nearest std. quantization levels

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 How Quantization will be done ?
 Consider i/p signal with 1kHz.

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 Sampling this signal with rate of 8kHz.

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 Quantization levels = {-1, -0.5, 0, 0.5}

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 Concept of Quantization Error : Difference between -
Sampled Value – Quantized Value

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 Quantization Index : Index of quantization levels corresponding
to i/p signal range in which sample falls.

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 Quantization Example
amplitude
x(t)
111 3.1867

110 2.2762 Quant. levels

101 1.3657

100 0.4552

011 -0.4552 boundaries

010 -1.3657

001 -2.2762 x(nTs): sampled values

xq(nTs): quantized values
000 -3.1867
Ts: sampling time
PCM t
codeword 110 110 111 110 100 010 011 100 100 011 PCM sequence
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3. Encoding
1. To translate the discrete set of sample vales to a more
appropriate form of signal
2. A binary code
 The maximum advantage over the effects of noise in a
transmission medium is obtained by using a binary
code, because a binary symbol withstands a relatively
high level of noise.
 The binary code is easy to generate and decode.

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Encoding

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 X(t) : i/p continuous signal : Vp-p = Vh – Vl

 Xq(t) : Quantized signal

 Stepsize, s = Vh – Vl / Q Q = Quantization levels

 At centre of these ranges, qua. Levels q0 – q7are placed.

 Logic : When X(t) – in range δ0 – it is quantized to value q0.

 In this way each value is quantized to nearest qua. levels.

 Qua. Noise = Qua. Signal – i/p signal = Xq(t) – X(t)

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 Demerits :
- To minimize qua. Error : Reduce Step size (s)
Increase qua. Levels (Q)
it will increase N (no. of bits),
hence complexity, bit rate

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 Noise Considerations in PCM System
1) Quantization Noise :

2) Signal to Noise Ratio (SNRq) :

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 1. Quantization Noise
 Qua. Signal and original signal differ from each other by
Random manner

- What is Quantization Error?

 Calculation of Mean square value of Qua. Error

 Quantization Noise =

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 2. Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio
 (P/Nq) in dB = 1.8 +6N dB

 (P/Nq) increases by 6 dB for every 1 bit increase in no. of bits in

PCM

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 Example 1
 A binary channel with bit rate , Rb = 36000 bits/sec is available
for PCM voice transmission. Assume fm = 3.2 kHz. Find –
i) Sampling rate (fs) ii) Qunatization levels
iii) No. of binary digits

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 Example 2
 A television signal with BW = 4.2 kHz is transmitted using
binary PCM. The no. of quantization levels is 512.
Calculate – i) Code word length
ii) Transmission BW
iii) Final bit rate
iv) O/p signal to noise ratio

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 Example 3
 Given an audio signal with x(t) = 3 cos (500 πt) .
i) Determine S/N ratio when this is quantized using 10-bit PCM
ii) How many bits of quantization are needed to achieve S/N of
40 dB ?

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 Example 4
 The information in an analog signal waveform is to be transmitted
over PCM system with accuracy of +/- 0.1 % (full scale). Analog
voltage waveform has BW of 100Hz and amplitude range of -10V
to +10V.
i) Determine max. sampling rate required by system
ii) Determine no. of bits required
iii) Determine min. bit rate required
iv) Determine min. CH BW required for transmission.

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 Example 4
 The BW of an i/p signal to PCM is restricted to 4kHz. The i/p signal
varies in amplitude from -3.8 V to +3.8 V and has the average
power of 30mW. The requires signal to noise ratio is given as 20dB.
The PCM modulator produce binary output.
Assuming uniform quantization –
i) Find the number of bits required per sample
ii) Outputs of 30 such PCM coders are time multiplexed. What
would be the min. transmission BW for this multiplexed signal?

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Differential Pulse Code Modulation

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 Need
 Illustration of redundant information in PCM

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 Differential PCM
 In PCM x(t) – sampled slightly greater than Nyquist Rate

 Adjacent samples exhibits high correlation in between them

 X(t) does not change rapidly from one sample to other

 Difference in amplitudes of adjacent samples is very small

 When these samples are encoded using PCM – there will be

redundant information
- By removing this redundancy, more efficient coding technique
can be developed.

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 DPCM principle :
- Difference between samples of signals is encoded.

- Analog signal : sampled at rate very higher than nyquist rate

- More correlation in between samples

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 Advantages of DPCM
 Difference between i/p sample and predicted sample is encoded
- Small values needs to be encoded

 Requires less Quantization levels

- Less no. of bits
- Less BW

 Less signaling rate compared to PCM

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Delta Modulation

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 Need of Delta Modulation
 In PCM, N bits are transmitted per sample

 Signaling Rate = N.fs , Increases signaling rate hence

transmission BW of system

 This disadvantage can be overcome by Delta Modulation

 Delta Modulation :
- Transmits only one bit per sample
- Reduces signaling rate and Channel BW.

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 Delta Modulation Principle
 Delta Modulation is a technique which provides a
staircase approximation to an over-sampled version of the
original message signal (analog input).

 Original signal and staircase signals are compared to produce :

Difference Signal

 This difference signal : quantized into two levels corresponding

to positive and negative differences +/-Δ

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DM Transmitter

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 Illustration of DM Process :

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 If app. Signal < original signal at sampling instant ,
Then app. Signal is increased by δ. (at instances 1 to 6)

 If app. Signal > original signal at sampling instant,

Then app. Signal is decreased by δ. (at instances 7,9,10)

 DM Output :
DM O/P = 1 : if app. Signal (staircase signal) is increased by δ.
DM O/P = 0 : if app. Signal (staircase signal) is decreased by δ.

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Illustration of the delta modulation process

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 Noises in DM System
 Slope Overload Distortion
 Granular Noise

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 Slope Overload Noise :
- Slope of X(t) >> X’(t) then it occurs : as X’(t) will not follow
X(t) exactly
- This difference produces Slope Overload Error
- Controlled by : Increasing Stepsize or Increasing fs

 Granular Noise :
- When X(t) is relatively Constant in amplitude then it occurs :
X’(t) hunts above and below X(t)
- Similar to quan noise in PCM
- Controlled by : Decreasing Stepsize

 Trade off between noises

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 Signalling Rate: 1/N times PCM : r = fs

 Condition for avoiding Slope Overload Error :

 Merits of System

 Demerits of System :

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Adaptive Delta Modulation

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 Need : To overcome noises/ errors in Delta Modulation like
Slope Over Noise : To reduce this stepsize should be increased
Granular Noise : To reduce this stepsize should be decreased

 -Both can not satisfied at the same time by delta Modulation

 To achieve this Stepsize is made variable : adaptive to variations

in i/p signal

 In steep segment of x(t) – Stepsize – Increased

In slowly varying segments of x(t) – Stepsize – Decreased

 Method called as – Adaptive Delta Modulation

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ADM Transmitter

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 So(t) = o/p of ADM

 So(t) = +1 if x(t) > x’(t)

So(t) = -1 if x(t) < x’(t)

 Stepsize at sampling instant k is given by,

δ(k) = [δ(k-1)] So(k) + δ So(k-1)

For example at k= 6th instance,

δ(6) = δ(5) So(6) + δ So (5)
= δ (1) + δ (1)
=δ+δ
=2δ

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 Adaptive Delta Modulation Process :

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 Delta Modulation Process :

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 Merits :
- Slope overload noise and granular noise is decreased
- Signal to Noise ration is increased
- Variable stepsize : has high dynamic range
- BW utilization is better than DM.
-Only one bit per sample is required.

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 Example1 1
 A sinusoidal signal x(t) = cos(6000πt) is to be transmitted using
either PCM or DM. The sampling rate for PCM system is 8kHz
and for transmission with DM the stepsize is 31.25mV.
The slope overload distortion is to be avoided. Assume no. of
quantization levels for PCM is 64.
Determine signalling rates for both systems and comment on
result.

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 Example 2
 A DM system is designed to operate at 5 times nyquist rate for
signal with 3kHz bandwidth. Determine max. amplitude of
2kHz i/p sinusoidal for which DM does not have slope overload.
Quantization stepsize is 250mV.

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 Example 3
 A DM system designed to operate 3 times nyquist rate for signal
with BW 3kHz.The quantization stepsize is 250mV.
i) Determine max. amplitude of 1kHz i/p sinusoidal for which DM
does not show slope overload
ii) Determine o/p SNR for part i)

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 Example 4
 A single integrator DM scheme samples voice signal at 64kHz.
Max. signal amp = 1V
Voice signal BW = 3.5 kHz.
i) Determine min. value of stepsize to avoid slope overload.
ii) Determine granular noise
iii) Assuminf ignal to be sinusiodal calculate Po and SNR
iv) Assuming voice signal amplitude is uniformly distributed in
range (-1 , 1) . Determine Po and SNR

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 Example 6
 The pulse rate in DM system is 56000 per sec. The i/p signal is ,
x(t) = 5 cos (2π 1000t) + 2 cos (2π 2000t) V with t in sec.
i) Find the min. value of stepsize which will avoid slope overload
distortion.
ii) What will be disadvantage by choosing value larger than min.?

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 Comparison between waveform Coding
Techniques
 PCM, DPCM, DM, ADM
- Concept
- sampling Freq.
- signaling rate
- No. of bits required
- Stepsize
- quantization noises

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 Line Codes
 Several line codes
1. On-off signaling
2. Non return-to-zero (NRZ)
3. Return-to-zero
4. Bipolar return-to-zero (BRZ)
5. Split-phase (Manchester code)
6. Differential encoding

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