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05 - W03L01 - Physical Layer

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23 views32 pages

05 - W03L01 - Physical Layer

Uploaded by

Hassan Shahg
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Data Communication and

Computer Networks
Physical Layer

Dr. Ehsan Munir


Department of Computer Science
COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus
[email protected]

The slides are adapted from the publisher’s material


Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan, 5 th edition
Data and Computer Communications by William Stallings, 8 th Edition
Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach by J F Kurose, K W Ross, 6 th Edition
Computer Networks, by L. Peterson, and B. Davie, 5 th edition
Outline
 Time and Frequency Domain
 Bandwidth
 Transmission Impairment
 Data Rate Limit
 Nyquist Bit Rate
 Shannon Capacity

2
The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

The frequency domain is more compact and


useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave. For example, three sine waves, each
with different amplitude and frequency can be
represented by three spikes in the frequency
domain.
Composite Signals

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications;

we need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple

sine waves.

According to Fourier analysis, any


composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

3.5
Note

If the composite signal is periodic, the


decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies;
if the composite signal is nonperiodic,
the decomposition gives a combination
of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.

3.6
A composite periodic signal

3.7
Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

3.8
The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

Figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be


the signal created by a microphone or a telephone set
when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

3.9
Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is


the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

3.11
Example

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves


with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what
is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all
components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz (see Figure).
3.12
The bandwidth for Example

3.13
Example

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest


frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw
the spectrum if the signal contains all frequencies of the
same amplitude.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency,
and B the bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies. We show


this by a series of spikes (see Figure).
3.14
The bandwidth for Example

3.15
Example

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200


kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the
signal.

Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure shows the frequency domain and the
bandwidth.

3.16
Figure The bandwidth for Example

3.17
DIGITAL SIGNALS
In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more
than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.

Topics discussed in this section:


Bit Rate

Bit Interval

3.18
Bit Interval
 The bit interval refers to the time duration of
a bit.
 The time required to send a single bit.
 It is the period of a bit.

19
Bit Rate
 The bit rate refers to the number of bits transmitted
per second.
 It is also referred to as the frequency of bits and is
expressed in bits per second.
 Ex: A digital signal produced in 6 seconds represents
300 bits. Find the bit interval for the signal.
 Sol: A signal represents 300 bits in 6 seconds.
Therefore, the time to represent one bit is 6 / 300 or
1 / 50 or 0.02 seconds.

20
Figure Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

21
Example

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are


needed per level? We calculate the number of bits from
the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

22
Example

What about a digital signal with 16 levels?

How many bits are needed per level?

What about 32 levels? 64 levels? 128 levels?

What about 9 levels??


?
2 = 9?

3.17 bits

However, this answer is not realistic.

3.23
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not


perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Topics discussed in this section:


Attenuation
Distortion
Noise
Attenuation

 It is the loss of energy or strength of with


distance over any transmission medium
 A signal loses energy to overcome resistance
of the medium
 Example: Wave traveling through the
atmosphere loses energy to overcome the air
resistance

25
Figure Attenuation

26
Attenuation

 Signal strength is measured in decibels (dB)


 dB is a relative measure of loss (or gain)
 NdB = 10 x log10 (P2 / P1)
◦ P2 = ending power level in watts
◦ P1 = beginning power level in watts
 Example: P1 = 10 watts, P2 = 5 watts
 Even easier – remember ½ rule
 Losses and gains are additive

27
Example
A signal is transmitted through medium. The
power of the signal at the receiver is half the
power at the transmitter. Compute the
attenuation.
 The received power of the signal P is ½ of P
r t
Pr=0.5 Pt
 Attenuation = 10 log10 (Pr / Pt)
 Attenuation = 10 log10 (0.5 Pt/ Pt)
=10 log10 (0.5)
Attenuation = 10 x (-0.3) = -3 dB 28
Example

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is


increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this
case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated
as

29
Decibels for Example

30
Impairment Causes
 Distortion
 It refers to change in the form or shape of a
signal
 Noise
 Unwanted waves modify the signal carrying
information during transmission. These
unwanted waves are referred to as noise.

31
Figure Distortion

32

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