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Logic

Logic

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5 views

Logic

Logic

Uploaded by

laiba.rashid193
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LOGIC

Terms & Classes or Categories


■ A term can be the name of a class or a
group… for example, cat is a name of a group
of animals having some common features.
■ A class/category is a group of things, people
or animals having common features… for
example:
Class of Cats
Class of Dogs
Class of Politicians
Categorical Proposition
■ A categorical proposition joins together
exactly two categorical terms and asserts that
some relationship holds between the classes
they designate.
Cats are mammals.
In the above statement cats are representing a
class and mammals is also a name of a class.
4 Categorical Propositions
■ There are four types of categorical
propositions.
■ A = All men are mortal.
■ E = No man is mortal.
■ I = Some men are mortal.
■ O = Some men are not mortal.
Quality & Quantity
■ Quality
A Proposition can be affirming something
or denying something. If it affirms then it would
be an Affirmative Proposition…, if it denies then it
would be a Negative Proposition.
All students are present. (Affirmative)
Some students are not present. (Negative )
Quality & Quantity
■ Quantity
A Proposition can be consisting of all
members of any Class (universal) or some
members of that class (particular).
All students are present. (universal)
Some students are present. (particular)
Distribution
■ When a term refers to all of its’ members
(designated by that term), it will be a
distributed term.
■ “A” distributes it subject only because it
represents all members of its class.
A = All toys are broken.
A = All boys are intelligent.
Distribution
■ “E” distributes its’ subject and its’ predicate
both, because they represent all members of
their classes respectively.
■ E = No student is absent.
■ E = No boy is intelligent.
Distribution
■ “I” distributes none of its’ subject or its’
predicate term. Both terms are showing some
members of their class.

I = Some fruits are sweet.


I = Some politicians are loyal.
Distribution
■ “O” does not distribute its’ subject term. It
distributes its’ predicate only.

O = Some fruits are not sweet.


O = Some politicians are not loyal.
CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS
A BIRD EYE VIEW
Code Quality Quantity Subject Predicate
Distribution Distribution

A Affirmative Universal Yes No

E Negative Universal Yes Yes

I Affirmative Particular No No

O Negative Particular No Yes


The Traditional Square of Opposition

■ The square of opposition is a chart that was


introduced within classical (categorical) logic
to represent the logical relationships holding
between certain propositions in virtue of their
form. The square, traditionally conceived,
looks like this…
CONTRARIES
The relationship between A and E proposition is
Contrary. They cannot both be true at the same time.
So if you know that one is true, then you also know
that the other is false. (They can, however, both be
false simultaneously.)
A= All roses are red. T / F
E= No rose is red. F / T
Sub-Contraries
■ Sub-Contraries are exactly the opposite of
contraries. It is always the case that at least
one is true. If you know that one is false, then
you automatically know that the other is true.
(They can however both be true
simultaneously.)
■ I = Some roses are red .
■ O = Some roses are not red.
Sub-alternation
■ · With Sub-alternation, you should remember
that you can go down with true (i.e. if A is
true, then I is true as well) and up with false
(i.e., if I is false, then A is false as well.) But not
vice versa.
Contradictories
■ The Contradictories, [(A&O), (E&I)] cannot
both be true at the same time and in the same
sense. One true and one false, but both
cannot be true at the same time.
Chart for Truth Values of the Propositions

A=True E=False I= True O= False

E=True A=False I=False O=True

I= True E= False A= O=undetermined

undetermined

O=True A= False I= undetermined E=undetermined


Chart for Truth Values of the Propositions

A= False O= True I=undetermined E=


undetermined

E=False I= True A=undetermined O=undetermine


d
I=False E=True A=False O=true

O=False A=True E= False I= True


Types of Inference

■ Immediate inference
We draw conclusion from a single premise.

■ Mediate Inference
Premises can be two (minimum) or
more than two…

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