Introduction to SPSS

Session 2
Creating a data file and entering data

Step 1. Enter the data—that is, the values obtained from each
participant or respondent for each variable.

Step 2. The next step is to set up the structure of the data file by
‘defining’ the variables.
Screening and Cleaning the data

Step 1: Checking for errors. First, you need to check each of your
variables for scores that are out of range (i.e. not within the range of
possible scores).

Step 2: Finding and correcting the error in the data file. Second, you
need to find where in the data file this error occurred (i.e. which case is
involved) and correct or delete the value.
Procedure for checking categorical variables
From the main menu at the top of the screen, click on Analyze, then click on Descriptive Statistics,
then Frequencies.

Choose the variables that you wish to check (e.g. sex, marital, educ).

To assist in finding the variables you want you can right click on the list of variables and select Sort
Alphabetically, or to show Variable Names or Variable Labels.

Click on the arrow button to move these into the Variable box.

Click on the Statistics button. Tick Minimum and Maximum in the Dispersion section.

Click on Continue and then on OK.

Checking continuous variables

From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Analyze, then click on Descriptive
statistics, then Descriptives.

Click on the variables that you wish to check. Click on the arrow button to move them
into the Variables box (e.g. age).

Click on the Options button. You can ask for a range of statistics. The main ones at this
stage are mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum. Click on the statistics you
wish to generate.

Click on Continue, and then on OK

Finding And Correcting The Error In The
Data File
1. Click on the Data menu and choose Sort Cases.

2. In the dialogue box that pops up, click on the variable that you
know has an error (e.g. sex) and then on the arrow to move it into
the Sort By box. Click on either ascending or descending (depending
on whether you want the higher values at the top or the bottom).

3. Click on OK.
Preliminary analyses

In studies involving human participants, it is useful to collect information on

the number of people or cases in the sample, the number and percentage of
males and females in the sample, the range and mean of ages, education
level, and any other relevant background information.

Prior to doing many of the statistical analyses (e.g. t-test, ANOVA,

correlation), it is important to check that you are not violating any of the
‘assumptions’ made by the individual tests.
CATEGORICAL VARIABLES

Procedure for obtaining descriptive statistics for categorical variables

1. From the menu click on Analyze, then click on Descriptive Statistics, then Frequencies.

2. Choose and highlight the categorical variables you are interested in (e.g. sex). Move
these into the Variables box.

3. Click on OK

Note: If you have very unequal group sizes, particularly if the group sizes are small, it
may be inappropriate to run some of the parametric analyses (e.g. ANOVA).
CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

1. From the menu click on Analyze, then select Descriptive Statistics, then Descriptives.

2. Click on all the continuous variables that you wish to obtain descriptive statistics for.
Click on the arrow button to move them into the Variables box (e.g. age, Total perceived
stress: tpstress).

3. Click on the Options button. Make sure mean, standard deviation, minimum,
maximum are ticked and then click on skewness, kurtosis.

4. Click on Continue, and then OK

Positive skewness values suggest that scores are clustered to the left at
the low values.

Negative skewness values indicate a clustering of scores at the high end

(right-hand side of a graph).

Positive kurtosis values indicate that the distribution is rather peaked

(clustered in the centre), with long thin tails.

Kurtosis values below 0 indicate a distribution that is relatively flat (too

many cases in the extremes).
 ASSESSING NORMALITY
1. From the menu at the top of the screen click on Analyze, then select Descriptive Statistics, then Explore.

2. Click on the variable(s) you are interested in (e.g. Total perceived stress: tpstress). Click on the arrow button to move

them into the Dependent List box.

3. In the Label Cases by: box, put your ID variable.

4. In the Display section, make sure that Both is selected.

5. Click on the Statistics button and click on Descriptives and Outliers. Click on Continue.

6. Click on the Plots button. Under Descriptive, click on Histogram to select it. Click on Stem-and-leaf to unselect it. Click

on Normality plots with tests. Click on Continue.

7. Click on the Options button. In the Missing Values section, click on Exclude cases pairwise. Click on Continue and then

OK
In the table labelled Tests of Normality, you are given the results of the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic. This assesses the normality of the
distribution of scores. A non-significant result (Sig. value of more
than .05) indicates normality.
CHECKING FOR OUTLIERS

First, have a look at the Histogram. Look at the tails of the distribution.
Are there data points sitting on their own, out on the extremes?

Second, inspect the Boxplot. Any scores that IBM SPSS considers are
outliers appear as little circles and asterix with a number attached (this
is the ID number of the case).
Using graphs to describe and explore the data

HISTOGRAMS

distribution of a single continuous variable (e.g. age, perceived stress

scores).
1. From the menu click on Graphs, then select Chart Builder. Click OK.

2. To choose the type of graph that you want, click on the Gallery tab, and choose Histogram.

3. Click on the first image shown (Simple Histogram) and drag it up to the Chart Preview area, holding your left mouse button

down.

4. Choose your continuous variable from the list of Variables (tpstress) and drag it across to the area on the Chart preview screen

labelled X-Axis holding your left mouse button down. This will only work if you have identified your variable as Scale in the

Data Editor window (the icon next to the variable should be a ruler).

5. If you would like to generate separate graphs for different groups (e.g. male/female) you can click on the Groups/Point ID tab

and choose Column Panels variable option. This will produce separate graphs next to each other; if you would prefer them to

be on top of one another choose the Rows panel variable.

6. Choose your categorical grouping variable (e.g. sex) and drag it across to the section labelled Panel in the Chart Preview area.

7. Click on OK
BAR GRAPHS

The bar graph can show the number of cases in particular categories, or
it can show the score on some continuous variable for different
categories.
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Graphs, then select Chart Builder and click

2. OK. Click on the Gallery tab and click on the second graph displayed (Clustered Bar). Holding your
left mouse button down drag this graph to the Chart Preview area.

3. From the Element Properties window click on Display error bars, and then on the Apply button at
the bottom of the window. If for some reason you don’t have the Element Properties window click
on the Element Properties box on the far right of the main screen.

4. From the list of Variables drag one of your grouping variables (e.g. sex) to the section on the Chart
Preview screen labelled Cluster on X: set colour. Click and drag your other categorical variable (e.g.
agegp3) to the section labelled X-Axis at the bottom of the graph. Click and drag your continuous
variable (Total Perceived Stress: tpstress) to the remaining blue section, the Y-axis.

5. Click on OK
LINE GRAPHS

A line graph allows you to inspect the mean scores of a continuous

variable across a number of different values of a categorical variable
(e.g. time 1, time 2, time 3).
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, select Graphs, then Chart Builder, and then
OK.
2. Click on the Gallery tab and then click on the second graph shown (Multiple Line). Drag
this option to the Chart preview area holding your left mouse button down.
3. From the Variables list drag your continuous variable (Total perceived stress:tpstress)
to the Y-axis. Drag one of your categorical variables (e.g. sex) to the section labelled Set
color and drag the other categorical variable (agegp5) to the X-Axis. If you want to display
error bars you can request this from the Element Properties window—tick the box
Display error bars and click the Apply button at the bottom of the screen.

4. Click on OK
SCATTERPLOTS

Scatterplots are typically used to explore the relationship between two

continuous variables (e.g. age and self-esteem).
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Graphs, then Chart Builder, and then OK.

2. Click on the Gallery tab and select Scatter/Dot. Click on the second graph (Grouped
Scatter) and drag this to the Chart Preview area by holding your left mouse button down.

3. Click and drag your continuous independent variable (Total PCOISS:tpcoiss) to the X-Axis,
and click and drag your dependent variable (Total perceived stress:tpstress) to the Y-Axis.
Both of these variables need to be nominated as Scale variables. If you want to show groups
(e.g. males, females) separately choose your categorical grouping variable (e.g. sex) and drag
to the Set Colour box.

4. Click on OK
BOXPLOTS

Boxplots are useful when you wish to compare the distribution of

scores on variables.
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Graphs, then select Chart
Builder, and click OK.

2. Click on the Gallery tab and choose the first graph displayed (Simple boxplot).
Drag it up to the Chart Preview area, holding your left mouse button down.

3. From the Variables box choose your categorical variable (e.g. sex) and drag it to
the X-Axis box on the Chart Preview area. Drag your continuous variable (Total
Positive Affect:tposaff) to the Y-axis.

4. Click on the Groups/Point ID and select Point ID label.

5. Click on OK
Manipulating the data

• Adding up the scores from the items

• Collapsing continuous variables (e.g. Age) into categorical variables

• Reducing or collapsing the number of categories of a categorical variable

• Recoding data entered as text (male, female) to numeric data (1, 2)

• Transforming skewed variables for analyses that require normally

distributed scores
CALCULATING TOTAL SCALE SCORES

Step 1: reverse any negatively worded items.

Step 2: add together scores from all the items that make up the
subscale or
Create new variables
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Transform, then click on Recode Into Different Variables.

2. Select the items you want to reverse (op2, op4, op6). Move these into the Input Variable— Output Variable

box.

3. Click on the first variable (op2) and type a new name in the Output Variable section on the right-hand side of

the screen and then click the Change button.

4. Click on the Old and New Values button.

In the Old Value section, type 1 in the Value box.

In the New Value section, type 5 in the Value box (this will change all scores that were originally scored as 1 to a

5).
5. Click on Add. This will place the instruction (1 → 5) in the box labelled Old > New.

6. Repeat the same procedure for the remaining scores. For example: Old Value—type in

2 New Value—type in 4 Add

Old Value—type in 3 New Value—type in 3 Add

Old Value—type in 4 New Value—type in 2 Add

Old Value—type in 5 New Value—type in 1 Add

Always double-check the item numbers that you specify for recoding and the old and

new values that you enter.

7. Click on Continue and then OK

Adding up the total scores for the scale
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Transform, then click on Compute Variable.

2. In the Target Variable box, type in the new name you wish to give to the total scale scores.

3. Click on the Type and Label button. Click in the Label box and type in a description of the scale
(e.g. total optimism). Click on Continue.
4. From the list of variables on the left-hand side, click on the first item in the scale (op1). Click on
the arrow button to move it into the Numeric Expression box.

5. Click on + on the calculator.

6. Click OK
Collapsing continuous variables (e.g. Age)
into categorical variables
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Transform and choose Visual Binning.
2. Select the continuous variable that you want to use (e.g. age). Transfer it into the Variables to Bin box. Click
on the Continue button.
3. In the Visual Binning screen, a histogram showing the distribution of age scores should appear.
4. In the section at the top labelled Binned Variable, type the name for the new categorical variable that you will
create (e.g. Agegp3).
5. Click on the button labelled Make Cutpoints. In the dialogue box that appears, click on the option Equal
Percentiles Based on Scanned Cases. In the box Number of Cutpoints, specify a number one less than the
number of groups that you want (e.g. if you want three groups, type in 2 for cutpoints). In the Width (%)
section below, you will then see 33.33 appear. This means that IBM SPSS will try to put 33.3 per cent of the
sample in each group. Click on the Apply button.
6. Click on the Make Labels button back in the main dialogue box. This will automatically generate value labels
for each of the new groups created.
7. Click on OK
Reducing or collapsing the number of
categories of a categorical variable
1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Transform, then on
Recode into Different Variables.

2. Select the variable you wish to recode (e.g. educ). In the Name box, type a
name for the new variable that will be created (e.g. educrec). Type in an
extended label if you wish in the Label section. Click on the button labelled
Change.

3. Click on the button labelled Old and New Values.

4. In the section Old Value, you will see a box labelled Value. Type in the first code or value of your
current variable (e.g. 1). In the New Value section, type in the new value that will be used (or, if the same
one is to be used, type that in). In this case I will recode to the same value, so I will type 1 in both the Old
Value and New Value sections. Click on the Add button.

5. For the second value, I would type 2 in the Old Value but in the New Value I would type 1. This will
recode all the values of both 1 and 2 from the original coding into one group in the new variable to be
created with a value of 1.

6. For the third value of the original variable, I would type 3 in the Old Value and 2 in the New Value. This
is just to keep the values in the new variable in sequence. Click on Add. Repeat for all the remaining
values of the original values. In the table Old > New, you should see the following codes for this example:
1→1; 2→1; 3→2; 4→3; 5→4; 6→5.

7. Click on Continue and then on OK

USING AUTOMATIC RECODE TO
CONVERT TEXT TO NUMERIC VALUES
1. Click on Transform and then select Automatic Recode.

2. Select your text variable (e.g. Sex) and move this into the Variable-New Name
box.

3. Type the name you would like to give the converted variable in the New name
box (e.g. SexNum). Click on the Add New Name button.

4. Click on OK.
Reliability and Validity
Checking the reliability of a scale

• One of the most commonly used indicators of internal consistency is Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Ideally,
the Cronbach alpha coefficient of a scale should be above .7 (DeVellis 2012).
• 1. From the menu at the top of the screen, click on Analyze, select Scale, then Reliability
• Analysis.
• 2. Click on all of the individual items that make up the scale (e.g. lifsat1, lifsat2, lifsat3, lifsat4, lifsat5).
Move these into the box marked Items.
• 3. In the Model section, make sure Alpha is selected.
• 4. In the Scale label box, type in the name of the scale or subscale (Life Satisfaction).
• 5. Click on the Statistics button. In the Descriptives for section, select Item, Scale, and Scale if item
deleted. In the Inter-Item section, click on Correlations. In the Summaries section, click on Correlations.
• 6. Click on Continue and then OK
Choosing the right statistic

• Exploring relationships