MODULE 2

Problem , Hypothesis, And

Data Collection
• Research Problem- Importance –Sources -Considerations In Selecting A
Research Problem
• Establishing Operational Definitions
• Hypothesis- Functions- Characteristics -Types
• Testing Of Hypothesis
• Errors In Testing A Hypothesis
• Major Approaches To Information Gathering
• Primary Data
• Secondary Data
• Quantitative Approaches To Data Collection – Survey – Observation -
Interview -Questionnaire - Open Ended And Closed Ended Questions
 Research problem
• A research problem is a question that researcher wants to answer or a problem that
a researcher wants to solve
• Identification & formulation of a research problem is the first step of the research
process.
• Selection of research problem depends on several factors such as researcher’s
knowledge, skills, interest, expertise, motivation & creativity with respect to the
subject of inquiry.
• It is like the identification of a destination before under taking a journey
• Without a problem , research cannot proceed because there is nothing to proceed to
ward.
• “If one wants to solve a problem , one must generally know what the
problem is . It can be said that a large part of the problem lies in
knowing what one is trying to do.
• Research problem may take a number of forms , from the very
simple to the very complex
• Research Topic: The broad general area expected to investigate. It is
a broad idea or concept from which many problems may be
delineated.
• Research Problem: A situation or circumstance that requires a
solution to be described, explained, or predicted. It is an
unsatisfactory
 DEFINITIONS
• According to Kerlinger, ‘A problem is an interrogative sentence or
statement that asks what relation exists between two or more variable. The
answer to question will provide what is having sought in the research.
• R.S. Woodworth defines problem as ‘a situation for which we have no ready
& successful response by instinct or by previous acquired habit. We must
find out what to do’, i.e. the solution can be found out only after an
investigation.
• In other words, ‘a research problem is an area of concern where there is a
gap in the knowledge base needed for professional practices.
SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
• Any research problem does exist if the following condition are in
existence:-
1.There must be an individual or a group or an organization having
different types of environment.
2.There must be at least two course of action is defined by one or more
values of the controlled variable.
3. There must be at least two possible outcomes .Out of these two a
researcher wants an objective.
Considerations In Selecting A Research Problem

• personal Inclination. The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem is the
personal inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has personal interest in the topic, he
would select that problem for his research work.
• Resources Availability. During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources available. If
these resources like money, time, accommodation and transport are available to the selection
place, then the selection of the problem is easy.
• Relative Importance. The importance and the problem also play a vital role in the selection of
research problem. If the problem is relatively important, then the researcher tends towards
the selection of the problem.
• Researcher Knowledge. The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the selection of
the research problem. The wisdom and experience of an investigator is required for well
collection of the research data. He can bitterly select a problem.
• Practicality: Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The practical usefulness
of the problem is the main motivation for a researcher to attend it.
• Time-lines of the Problem. some problems take little time for its solution while others
take more time. So, it depends on the time in which we have to complete his research
work.
• Data Availability. If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the problem
would be selected.
• Urgency. Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research problem. Urgent
problem must be given priority because the immediate solution can benefit the people.
• Feasibility. Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the research
problem. The researcher qualification, training and experience should match the
problem.
• Area Culture. The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his research is
also responsible for the selection of research problem
 HYPOTHESIS
• Hypothesis is an assumption that is made on the basis of some
evidence.
• This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the
research questions into a prediction.
• It includes components like variables, population and the relation
between the variables.
• A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the
relationship between two or more variables.
 Characteristics of Hypothesis
• The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.
• If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the
relationship between variables.
• The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting
more tests.
• The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it
should also be understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not
related to its significance.
 Sources of Hypothesis
• The resemblance between the phenomenon.
• Observations from past studies, present-day experiences and from the
competitors.
• Scientific theories.
• General patterns that influence the thinking process of people.
 Types of Hypothesis
There are six forms of hypothesis and they are:
• Simple hypothesis
• Complex hypothesis
• Directional hypothesis
• Non-directional hypothesis
• Null hypothesis
• Associative and casual hypothesis
 Simple Hypothesis

• It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single

independent variable.
• For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster.
• Here, eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing
weight is the dependent variable.
 Complex Hypothesis

• It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables

and two or more independent variables.
• Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss, glowing skin,
reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease, high blood
pressure and some cancers.
 Directional Hypothesis

• It shows how a researcher is intellectual and committed to a

particular outcome.
• The relationship between the variables can also predict its nature. For
example- children aged four years eating proper food over a five-year
period are having higher IQ levels than children not having a proper
meal.
• This shows the effect and direction of effect.
Non-directional Hypothesis
• It is used when there is no theory involved.
• It is a statement that a relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the
exact nature (direction) of the relationship.
Null Hypothesis
• It provides the statement which is contrary to the hypothesis.
• It’s a negative statement, and there is no relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
• The symbol is denoted by “HO”.
Associative and Causal Hypothesis
• Associative hypothesis occurs when there is a change in one variable resulting in a
change in the other variable.
• Whereas, causal hypothesis proposes a cause and effect interaction between two or more
variables.
 Functions of Hypothesis

• Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.

• It becomes the start point for the investigation.
• Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
• It helps in directing the inquiries in the right directions.
 Hypothesis Testing
• Hypothesis testing was introduced by Ronald Fisher, Jerzy Neyman,
Karl Pearson and Pearson’s son, Egon Pearson.
• Hypothesis testing is a statistical method that is used in making
statistical decisions using experimental data.
• Hypothesis Testing is basically an assumption that we make about the
population parameter.
 Key terms and concepts
• Null hypothesis: Null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis that assumes that the
observation is due to a chance factor.
• Null hypothesis is denoted by; H0: μ1 = μ2, which shows that there is no difference
between the two population means.
• Alternative hypothesis: Contrary to the null hypothesis, the alternative hypothesis
shows that observations are the result of a real effect.
• Level of significance: Refers to the degree of significance in which we accept or reject
the null-hypothesis.
• 100% accuracy is not possible for accepting or rejecting a hypothesis, so we therefore
select a level of significance that is usually 5%.
• Type I error: When we reject the null hypothesis, although that
hypothesis was true. Type I error is denoted by alpha. In hypothesis
testing, the normal curve that shows the critical region is called the alpha
region.
• Type II errors: When we accept the null hypothesis but it is false. Type
II errors are denoted by beta. In Hypothesis testing, the normal curve that
shows the acceptance region is called the beta region.
• Power: Usually known as the probability of correctly accepting the null
hypothesis. 1-beta is called power of the analysis.
• One-tailed test: When the given statistical hypothesis is one value like
H0: μ1 = μ2, it is called the one-tailed test.
• Two-tailed test: When the given statistics hypothesis assumes a less than
or greater than value, it is called the two-tailed test.
 Statistical decision for hypothesis testing

• In statistical analysis, we have to make decisions about the hypothesis.

• These decisions include deciding if we should accept the null
hypothesis or if we should reject the null hypothesis.
• Every test in hypothesis testing produces the significance value for
that particular test.
• In Hypothesis testing, if the significance value of the test is greater
than the predetermined significance level, then we accept the null
hypothesis.
• If the significance value is less than the predetermined value, then we
should reject the null hypothesis.
• For example, if we want to see the degree of relationship between two
stock prices and the significance value of the correlation coefficient is
greater than the predetermined significance level, then we can accept
the null hypothesis and conclude that there was no relationship
between the two stock prices.
• However, due to the chance factor, it shows a relationship between the
variables.
 Errors in testing a Hypothesis

• Type I Error: The first kind of error that is possible involves the rejection
of a null hypothesis that is actually true.
• Type I errors are equivalent to false positives. Let’s go back to the
example of a drug being used to treat a disease. If we reject the null
hypothesis in this situation, then our claim is that the drug does, in fact,
have some effect on a disease. But if the null hypothesis is true, then, in
reality, the drug does not combat the disease at all. The drug is falsely
claimed to have a positive effect on a disease.
 Controlling type I error
• For a 95% confidence level, the value of alpha is 0.05. This means that
there is a 5% probability that we will reject a true null hypothesis.
• In the long run, one out of every twenty hypothesis tests that we perform
at this level will result in a type I error.
• For a 99% confidence level (value of alpha is 0.01) there is 1% probability
of rejection of a true null hypothesis.
• We could decrease the value of alpha from 0.05 to 0.01, corresponding to
a 99% level of confidence and minimize type I error.
Type II error
• The other kind of error that is possible occurs when we do not reject a null
hypothesis that is false.
• This sort of error is called a type II error and is also referred to as an error of the
second kind.
• Type II errors are equivalent to false negatives.
• If we think back again to the scenario in which we are testing a drug, what
would a type II error look like?
• A type II error would occur if we accepted that the drug had no effect on a
disease, but in reality, it did.
 Controlling type ll error
• Increase the sample size : One of the simplest methods to increase the
power of the test is to increase the sample size used in a test. A larger
sample size increases the chances to capture the differences in the
statistical tests, as well as increasing the power of a test.
• Increase the significance level: Another method is to choose a higher
level of significance. For instance, a researcher may choose a significance
level of 0.10 instead of the commonly acceptable 0.05 level. The higher
significance level implies a higher probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis.
 Errors can be minimized, can’t be
removed!!!!
• Type I and type II errors are part of the process of hypothesis testing.
Although the errors cannot be completely eliminated, we can minimize
one type of error.
Major approaches to information
gathering
• Based on the broad approaches to information gathering data are
categorized as:
i. Primary data
ii. Secondary data
 Primary data

• It is a kind of data that is collected directly from the data source without going
through any existing sources.
• It is mostly collected specially for a research project and may be shared publicly
to be used for other research.
• Primary data is often reliable, authentic, and objective.
• It was collected with the purpose of addressing a particular research problem.
• It is noteworthy that primary data is not commonly collected because of the high
cost of implementation.
• Most of the people who collect primary data are government authorized agencies,
investigators, research-based private institutions, etc.

• Primary data is further classified into quantitative and qualitative data.

 Secondary data

• It is the data that has been collected in the past by someone else but made
available for others to use.
• They are usually once primary data but become secondary when used by a third
party.
• Secondary data are usually easily accessible to researchers and individuals
because they are mostly shared publicly.
• Some common sources of secondary data include trade publications,
government statistics, journals, etc.
• In most cases, these sources cannot be trusted as authentic.
 Methods of data collection

Primary sources Secondary sources

Documents
Interview Observation Questionnaire

Unstructured Participant Mailed Census data

Hospital records
School records
Non-
Structured Face to face Earlier research
Participant Govt. publications
Client histories
 SURVEY

• The term ‘survey’ can be defined as a process which may involve an

investigation/examination or assessment in the form of a short paper-and-pencil
feedback form to an intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
• This method ties together data about people, their thoughts and behaviours.
• Survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals.
• Survey may focus on a factual information about individuals.
• Aim to obtain the opinions of the survey takers.
• In a survey research, the researcher collects data with the help of standardized
questionnaires or interviews, which is administered on a sample of respondents
from a population.
• The method of survey research is one of the techniques of applied social research.
Uses of Survey Method in Psychology
• Surveys are commonly used in psychology research to collect self-report data
from participants.
• A survey can be used to investigate the characteristics, behaviours or opinions
of a group of people.
• These research tools can be used to ask questions about demographic
information about characteristics such as sex, religion, ethnicity and income.
• They can also collect information on experiences , opinions and even
hypothetical scenarios.
• For example, researchers might present people with a possible scenario and
then ask them how they might respond in that situation.
Advantages of survey
One of the big benefits of survey in psychological research is that they allow
researchers to gather a large quantity of data relatively quickly and cheaply in a
short period.
• Less expensive than many other data collection techniques
• Can be administered easily and quickly
• Surveys can be used to collect information on a broad range of things
including personal facts, attitudes past behaviours and opinions
• Surveys compute diverse uses
Disadvantages
• One potential problem with written survey is the non- response bias.
• Poor survey construction and administration can undermine other- wise well -designed studies
• The answer choices provided in a survey may not be an accurate reflection of how the
participants actually feel While random sampling is generally used to select participants,
response rates can bias the results of a survey
• The social desirability bias can lead people to respond in a way that makes them look better
than they really are.
• for ex, a respondent might report that they engage in more healthy behaviours than they do in
real life
 OBSERVATION

• The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
• The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately.
• Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it
is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
• Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents.
• observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method.
• Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited.
• Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
Types of Observation
• In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style
of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of observation and the selection of
pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as structured observation.
• Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies.
• But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the
same is termed as unstructured observation.
• In Exploratory study, the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
• The observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so
that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation.
• The observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience
through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-
participant observation.
• If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation
• when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental
procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation
 INTERIVIEW
• The procedure for interview is different from that for the questionnaire, but
both have the aim, and it is to obtain data regarding the respondents with
minimum bias and maxim efficiency.
• Interview is a face-to-face situation between the interviewer and the response
which intends to elicit some desired information from the latter.
• Thus, an interview is process involving at least two persons, the interviewer
and the respondent.
• The success of the interview is also dependent upon three important
conditions, namely, accessibility, cognition and motivation.
Types of interviews
• There are two types of interview, namely, formal interview and informal interview.
• A formal interview may be defined as one in which already prepared questions are asked in a set
order by the interviewer and answers are recorded in a standardized form.
• The formal interview is also known as a structured or patterned interview.
• The interviewer can dig deeper’ and thus, get a deeper understanding of the respondents’ behaviour.
• As the interviewer is Left free to ask the questions, he can mould quest Left free to ask the questions,
he can mould questions in such a way that may reflect the deeper aspects of the respondents’
personality.
• First, the procedures of conducting a formal interview are expensive and time-consuming. Therefore,
a formal interview is conducted only where an informal interview cannot be conducted.
• Second, the validities of the formal interview are usually less than those obtained by some common
methods of biodata analysis and standardized psychological test (Guilford, 1966).
Advantages of interview
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
(iii)There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
Demerits of interview
It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken.
(i) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there
also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
(ii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income
groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove
inadequate.
(iii)This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and recalls
upon the respondents are necessary.
(iv) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even
to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
Telephone interviews:
• This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.
• It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly
in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:
1). It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2). It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3). It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4). Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5). Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
QUESTIONNAIRE
• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries.
• It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations
and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form
or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is
often indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach
once questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies
altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all
• Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms , viz., multiple choice
question and the open-end question.

• In MCQs the question with only two possible answers (usually ‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken as a
special case of the multiple choice question, or can be named as a ‘closed question.’

• There are some advantages and disadvantages of each possible form of question. Multiple choice
or closed questions have the advantages of easy handling, simple to answer, quick and relatively
inexpensive to analyse.

• They are most amenable to statistical analysis. Sometimes, the provision of alternative replies
helps to make clear the meaning of the question.

• But the main drawback of fixed alternative questions is that of “putting answers in people’s
mouths” i.e., they may force a statement of opinion on an issue about which the respondent does
not in fact have any opinion.
• Open ended questions which are designed to permit a free response from the respondent rather
than one limited to certain stated alternatives are considered appropriate.
• Such questions give the respondent considerable latitude in phrasing a reply.
• Getting the replies in respondent’s own words is, thus, the major advantage of open-ended
questions.
• But one should not forget that, from an analytical point of view, open-ended questions are more
difficult to handle, raising problems of interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.