DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

S ES S I O N 1
 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
by NGUYEN HOA MAI PHUONG, Ph. D
Email: [email protected]
 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
1. What is Discourse Analysis?
2. Features of Discourse Analysis
3. What Discourse Analysis Does
4. What is Discourse Analysis used for?
5. How to conduct a Discourse Analysis
6. How different is Discourse Analysis from other methods?
7. Examples
8. Questions for discussion
9. Exercises
 1. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: DEFINITION

• Discourse analysis, also called discourse studies, was developed during the 1970s as an academic field.
Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which language is used between people, both
in written texts and spoken contexts.
•Whereas other areas of language study might focus on individual parts of language—such as words and
phrases (grammar) or the pieces that make up words (linguistics)—discourse analysis looks at a running
conversation involving a speaker and listener (or a writer's text and its reader).
•In discourse analysis, the context of a conversation is taken into account as well as what's being said. This
context may encompass a social and cultural framework, including the location of a speaker at the time of the
discourse, as well as nonverbal cues such as body language, and, in the case of textual communication, it may
also include images and symbols.
 "It's the study of real language use, by real speakers in real situations," explains Teun A. van Dijk, a noted
author and scholar in the field.
 2. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: FEATURES

Discourse analysis looks at conversations in their social context.

Discourse analysis melds linguistics and sociology by taking into account the social and cultural context that
language is used.
It can be used by businesses, academic researchers, or the government—any person or organization that
wants to better understand an aspect of communication.
3. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: WHAT DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
DOES
- Misunderstanding relayed information can lead to problems—big or small. Being able to distinguish subtle
subtext in order to differentiate between factual reporting and fake news, editorials, or propaganda is crucial
to interpreting true meaning and intent. This is the reason that having well-developed skills in the critical
analysis of discourse—to be able to "read between the lines" of verbal and/or written communication—is of
utmost importance.
- Since the establishment of the field, discourse analysis has evolved to include a wide range of topics, from
the public versus private use of language to official versus colloquial rhetoric, and from oratory to written and
multimedia discourses. The field of study has further branched out to be paired with the fields of psychology,
anthropology, and philosophy, thus meshing linguistics with sociology.
 4. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: WHAT IS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
USED FOR?
Conducting discourse analysis means examining how language functions and how meaning is created in
different social contexts. It can be applied to any instance of written or oral language, as well as non-verbal
aspects of communication such as tone and gestures.
Materials that are suitable for discourse analysis include:
Books, newspapers and periodicals
Marketing material, such as brochures and advertisements
Business and government documents
Websites, forums, social media posts and comments
Interviews and conversations
 By analyzing these types of discourse, researchers aim to gain an understanding of social groups and how
they communicate.
5. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Aspects of language to be analysed
Level of communication What is analyzed?
Vocabulary Words and phrases can be analyzed for ideological associations, formality, and euphemistic
and metaphorical content.
Grammar The way that sentences are constructed (e.g., verb tenses, active or passive construction,
and the use of imperatives and questions) can reveal aspects of intended meaning.

Structure The structure of a text can be analyzed for how it creates emphasis or builds a narrative.

Genre Texts can be analyzed in relation to the conventions and communicative aims of their genre
(e.g., political speeches or tabloid newspaper articles).
Non-verbal communication Non-verbal aspects of speech, such as tone of voice, pauses, gestures, and sounds like
“um”, can reveal aspects of a speaker’s intentions, attitudes, and emotions.
Conversational codes The interaction between people in a conversation, such as turn-taking, interruptions and
listener response, can reveal aspects of cultural conventions and social roles.
 5. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: HOW TO CONDUCT DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Discourse analysis is a qualitative and interpretive method of analyzing texts (in contrast to more systematic methods like
content analysis).
 make interpretations based on both the details of the material itself and on contextual knowledge.
There are many different approaches and techniques you can use to conduct discourse analysis, but the steps below outline
the basic structure you need to follow. Following these steps can help you avoid pitfalls of confirmation bias that can cloud
your analysis.
Step 1: Define the research question and select the content of analysis
To do discourse analysis, you begin with a clearly defined research question. Once you have developed your question, select a
range of material that is appropriate to answer it.
Discourse analysis is a method that can be applied both to large volumes of material and to smaller samples, depending on the
aims and timescale of your research.
You want to study how a particular regime change from dictatorship to democracy has affected the public relations rhetoric of
businesses in the country. You decide to examine the mission statements and marketing material of the 10 largest companies
within five years of the regime change.
5. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: HOW TO CONDUCT DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Step 2: Gather information and theory on the context

Next, you must establish the social and historical context in which the material was produced and intended to be received.
Gather factual details of when and where the content was created, who the author is, who published it, and whom it was
disseminated to.
As well as understanding the real-life context of the discourse, you can also conduct a literature review on the topic and
construct a theoretical framework to guide your analysis.
You research factual information on the politics and history of the country and on the businesses you are studying. You also
research theory on democratic transitions and the relationship between government and business.
Step 3: Analyze the content for themes and patterns
This step involves closely examining various elements of the material – such as words, sentences, paragraphs, and overall
structure – and relating them to attributes, themes, and patterns relevant to your research question.
You analyze the selected material for wording and statements that reflect or relate to authoritarian and democratic political
ideologies, including attitudes toward authority, liberal values, and popular opinion.
5. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: HOW TO CONDUCT DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Step 4: Review your results and draw conclusions

Once you have assigned particular attributes to elements of the material, reflect on your results to examine
the function and meaning of the language used.
 consider your analysis in relation to the broader context that you established earlier to draw conclusions
that answer your research question.
Your analysis shows that the material published before the regime change used language that emphasized the
quality and necessity of its services and products, while the material published after the shift to a democratic
regime emphasized the needs and values of the consumer.
 compare the results with your research on the ideology and rhetoric of the political regimes, and infer that
the shifting political context shaped the communication strategies of national businesses.
6. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: THE DIFFERENCES FROM OTHER METHODS

Unlike linguistic approaches that focus only on the rules of language use, discourse analysis emphasizes the
contextual meaning of language.
It focuses on the social aspects of communication and the ways people use language to achieve specific
effects (e.g. to build trust, to create doubt, to evoke emotions, or to manage conflict).
Instead of focusing on smaller units of language, such as sounds, words or phrases, discourse analysis is used
to study larger chunks of language, such as entire conversations, texts, or collections of texts. The selected
sources can be analyzed on multiple levels.
7. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: EXAMPLES OF DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Examples of discourse analysis studies:

• A study by the University of California analyzed the language used by the media in reporting on the 2016 US presidential
election.
• A study by the University of Birmingham analyzed the language used in online forums to discuss mental health.
• A study by the University of Helsinki analyzed the language used in Finnish parliamentary debates to discuss
immigration.
The study by the University of California analyzed the language used by the media in reporting on the 2016 US presidential
election. The study found that the media used different language when reporting on male and female candidates. For example,
female candidates were more likely to be described using words like “emotional” or “shrill,” while male candidates were more
likely to be described using words like “confident” or “strong.” This study shows how discourse analysis can be used to identify
patterns in language use that reflect underlying biases.
The study also found that the media used different language when reporting on candidates of different races. For example,
African American candidates were more likely to be described using words like “angry” or “scary,” while white candidates were
more likely to be described using words like “clean” or “articulate.” The study shows how discourse analysis can be used to
identify patterns in language use that reflect underlying biases.
8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1(a)

1a. How can we use this information to improve media literacy among voters?
 To improve media literacy among voters, the findings of these studies could be used to raise awareness of
the possible biases in the media’s language use and to encourage critical thinking and fact-checking among
voters.
Voters could be taught how to identify and analyze the patterns of language use in different media genres
and sources of information and how to evaluate the credibility and reliability of the information they receive.
8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1(b)

1b. What could some of the limitations of the study be made by the University of California?
- The study only analyzed a sample of media outlets and did not cover all the possible sources of information that voters
could access.
- The study did not account for the effects of other factors, such as the candidates’ policies, personalities, or performance
in debates, on the voters’ perceptions and choices.
- The study did not measure the actual impact of the media’s language use on the voters’ attitudes and behaviors, but
only inferred it from the patterns of language use.
- The study did not consider the possible variations in language use within and across different media genres, such as
news, opinion, or entertainment.
- To address the limitations of this study in future research, researchers could use a larger and more diverse sample of
media outlets and sources of information, control for other factors that may affect voters’ perceptions and choices,
measure the actual impact of the media’s language use on the voters’ attitudes and behaviors, and consider the
variations in language use within and across different media genres.
8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 1
- The University of Helsinki conducted a study that analyzed the language used in Finnish parliamentary debates
to discuss immigration. The study found that the language used in these debates was often negative and that it
was often used to create a sense of fear and anxiety about immigration. The study also found that the language
used in these debates was often a gendered and that it was often used to reinforce traditional gender roles .
- The study found that the language used in these debates was often negative and that it was often used to create
a sense of fear and anxiety about immigration. The study also found that the language used in these debates was
often gendered and that it was often used to reinforce traditional gender roles. The study also found that the
language used in these debates was often used to reinforce nationalist and anti-immigrant sentiment.
- The impact of this study is that it provides a comparative and critical perspective on two different methods of
analyzing language use in texts and contexts: discourse analysis and conversation analysis. The study also
discusses the implications of these methods for understanding social phenomena such as multiculturalism,
intergroup relations, and identity construction. The study also contributes to the field of discursive psychology by
applying its theoretical and methodological framework to the analysis of far-right discourse on immigration.
 8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 2

2. How can we change the language used in these debates and discussions?
- Changing the language used in these debates and discussions requires a collective effort from various stakeholders
such as politicians, journalists, activists, educators, and citizens. Here are some suggestions:
- Promoting a constructive and respectful dialogue on immigration that acknowledges the diversity of perspectives and
experiences among different groups of people.
- Encouraging a critical and evidence-based analysis of the language used in parliamentary debates and online
discussions on immigration that challenges the stereotypes, prejudices, and misinformation.
- Supporting the use of inclusive and non-discriminatory language that recognizes the human rights, dignity, and worth
of immigrants and minorities.
- Fostering the development of intercultural competence and empathy among individuals and communities that
enhances their ability to communicate effectively and respectfully across cultural boundaries.
- Advocating for policies and practices that promote social justice, equality, and inclusion for all members of society
regardless of their background or identity.
 8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 2

Here are some examples of inclusive and non-discriminatory language:

Using gender-neutral terms such as “they” instead of “he” or “she” when referring to a person whose gender
is unknown or non-binary.
Avoiding stereotypes and assumptions based on race, ethnicity, religion, age, disability, sexual orientation, or
other personal characteristics.
Using person-first language that emphasizes the person rather than the condition or disability (e.g., “a person
with autism” instead of “an autistic person”).
Using respectful and accurate terminology that reflects the preferences of the individual or group being
referred to (e.g., “First Nations” instead of “Indians” ).
 8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 2

3. In what way the study can be applied to other countries?

The findings of this study can be applied to other countries by:
Comparing the language used in parliamentary debates and online discussions on immigration in different countries and
regions, and identifying the similarities and differences in terms of discursive strategies, rhetorical devices, and
ideological positions.
Examining how the language used in these debates and discussions reflects and influences the public opinion, attitudes,
and emotions towards immigration and multiculturalism in different societies and cultures.
Exploring how the language used in these debates and discussions relates to the political, social, and historical contexts
of immigration and multiculturalism in different countries and regions, and how it affects the policies and practices of
integration and inclusion.
Evaluating how the language used in these debates and discussions challenges or reinforces the existing power relations,
stereotypes, and prejudices between different groups of people, and how it impacts the human rights, dignity, and well-
being of immigrants and minorities.
 8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 3

 Spoken discourse and written discourse differ in several ways. For example:
Grammatical intricacy: Written discourse is more structurally complex and more elaborate than spoken discourse. Sentences in spoken
discourse are short and simple, whereas they are longer and more complex in written discourse.
Lexical density: Written discourse tends to be more lexically dense than spoken discourse. Content words tend to be tightly packed into
individual clauses in written discourse, whereas they tend to be spread out over a number of clauses in spoken discourse.
Nominalization: Written discourse has a higher level of nominalization than spoken discourse. Nominalization refers to presenting actions
and events as nouns rather than as verbs.
Explicitness: Written discourse tends to be more explicit than spoken discourse. Written texts often include more details and explanations
than spoken texts.
Contextualization: Spoken discourse is more contextualized than written discourse. Speakers rely on the context of the situation and the
knowledge of the listener to convey meaning.
Spontaneity: Spoken discourse is more spontaneous than written discourse. Speakers often have less time to plan what they are going to say
and may make mistakes or use filler words such as “um” or “ah.”
Repetition, hesitations, and redundancy: Spoken discourse tends to include more repetition, hesitations, and redundancy than written
discourse.
 8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 3

Discourse community refers to a group of people who share a set of discourses, understood as basic values
and assumptions, and ways of communicating about those goals.
- Discourse refers to the exchange of words and ideas among those who share a common purpose for
continually interacting. Discourse and society refer to the ways in which language is used to construct social
reality and shape social relations.
 An example of a discourse community is a group of scientists who share a common language and set of
values and assumptions about their field of study. They use specialized terminology and methods of inquiry
that are not widely understood outside their community.
- Examples of discourse communities include academic communities, business groups, fitness groups, and
activist organizations. A discourse community is a group of people who share a set of discourses, understood
as basic values and assumptions, and ways of communicating about those
8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 4

4. How do discourse communities influence language use?

- Discourse communities influence language use by establishing norms and conventions for communication
within the community. Members of a discourse community share a common language and set of values and
assumptions about their field of study or area of interest. They use specialized terminology and methods of
inquiry that are not widely understood outside their community.
 Examples of specialized terminology used by different discourse communities include technical terms used
by scientists, legal jargon used by lawyers, and medical terminology used by doctors.
- There are many other concepts related to discourse and society. Some of these include power relations,
social identity, cultural norms, and social change.
 Examples of power relations in discourse and society include the relationship between politicians and the
media, the relationship between employers and employees, and the relationship between different social
groups based on race, gender, or other personal characteristics.
8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 5

5. How do power relations influence discourse and society?

Power relations influence discourse and society by shaping the ways in which language is used to construct
social reality and shape social relations. Those who hold power are often able to control the discourse and
shape the narratives that are used to describe social phenomena.
 8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 6

6. How can we challenge the influence of power on language use?

Challenging the influence of power on language use requires a conscious effort to question our own biases and prejudices, as
well as those of others. Here are some suggestions:
Educating ourselves about the diversity of human experiences and perspectives through reading, listening, and interacting with
people from different backgrounds and cultures.
Examining our own assumptions and beliefs about different groups of people and challenging them with evidence-based
information and critical thinking.
Encouraging open and respectful dialogue that allows for the expression of different opinions and perspectives without
resorting to personal attacks or stereotypes.
Promoting positive representations of diversity in media, arts, education, and other public domains that challenge negative
stereotypes and promote empathy and understanding.
Advocating for policies and practices that promote social justice, equality, and inclusion for all members of society regardless of
their background or identity.
 8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 6

 Cultural norms are the shared expectations and rules that guide behavior of people within social groups. They
are learned and reinforced from parents, friends, teachers and others while growing up in a society. Cultural
norms can have a powerful impact on how we think and act. Understanding the influence of culture is key to
developing meaningful relationships, gaining perspective, and making informed decisions.
 For example, in some cultures, it is considered rude to speak loudly in public places while in others it is not. In
some cultures, it is considered impolite to eat with your left hand while in others it is not.
These cultural norms shape the way people interact with each other and can have a significant impact on society.
8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 7

7. Can you give me an example of how culture affects business practices?

Culture can have a significant impact on business practices. For example, culture can impact how employees
are best managed based on their values and priorities. It also impacts the functional areas of marketing, sales,
and distribution. It can affect a company’s analysis and decision on how best to enter a new market.
Understanding the influence of culture is key to developing meaningful relationships, gaining perspective,
and making informed decisions.
There are several common challenges when doing business in another culture. One of the most significant
challenges is language barriers. It’s important to consider the languages spoken in the countries to which
you’re looking to expand. Another challenge is cultural differences. Anxiety and stress are common reactions
for people new to working in a foreign culture. Doing business across cultures adds a whole new layer of
complexity. Navigating the global business landscape can be difficult because every country has its own
government, policies, laws, cultures, languages, currency, time zones, and inflation rate.
8. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION 7

- Social identity is a concept that is often studied in discourse analysis. Social identity refers to the way in which people
define themselves in relation to others based on their membership in social groups. Discourse analysis assists in providing
an understanding of how social identity is constructed, as well as the effects of such identity construction.
 An example of social identity in discourse analysis is how people define themselves in relation to others based on their
membership in social groups. For example, a study of policy texts can reveal ideological frameworks and viewpoints of the
writers of the policy. These sorts of studies often demonstrate how policy texts often categorize people in ways that
construct social hierarchies and restrict people’s agency. Another example is how an education policy in one state of
Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities.
- This study is an example of discourse analysis that examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions
teacher professionalism and teacher identities. The author uses a critical discourse analysis approach to analyze the policy
documents and interviews with policy makers and teachers. The study reveals that the policy framework privileges a
narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional
practice. The study also shows how the policy constructs teacher identities in terms of competence, accountability, and
performance. The study argues that the policy has implications for teacher autonomy, agency, and resistance.