What is Machine Learning?

• ML is a specific subset of AI that trains

machines how to learn.

• Optimize a performance criterion using

example data or past experience.

• Role of Computer science: Efficient algorithms

to
– Solve the optimization problem
– Representing and evaluating the model for inference.
• Types of Machine Learning:
• Supervised learning:
• Supervised learning is the type of ML
algorithms that require both input and output
data is initially provided.

• Basically, data engineers create an algorithm,

then train it with a labeled dataset — the one
that has actual input and output parameters.

– Given: Training data + Desired outputs (labels)

Unsupervised Learning:
• Unsupervised learning is a type of ML algorithm which works with
the input data having no examples or suggestions of the expected
output.

• Its primary aim is to combine/gather the data into categories.

Unsupervised learning divides into the following subtypes:

• Association:- This allows discovering fascinating interconnections

between portions of data in large datasets.

• Clustering:- This kind of algorithm is very spread since it allows

simply grouping the pieces of data according to a certain trait.

– Given: Training data (without desired outputs)

Semi-supervised learning:
– Given: Training data + a few desired outputs
Reinforcement Learning :
• It is employed by various software and machines to find the best
possible behavior or path it should take in a specific situation.

• Reinforcement learning differs from supervised learning in a way

that in supervised learning the training data has the answer key
with it so the model is trained with the correct answer itself.

• whereas in Reinforcement learning, there is no answer but the

reinforcement agent decides what to do to perform the given
task.

• In the absence of a training dataset, it is bound to learn from its

experience.
• In reinforcement learning, the algorithm (in this
context also often referred to as agent) learns
through trial-and-error using feedback to its
own actions.

• Rewards and punishment operate as signals for

desired and undesired behavior.

• The best context to understand reinforcement

learning is in a game with a clear objective and
a point system
Example: The problem is as follows: We have an agent and a
reward, with many hurdles in between. The agent is supposed to
find the best possible path to reach the reward. The following
problem explains the problem more easily.
• The above image shows the robot, diamond, and fire.

• The goal of the robot is to get the reward that is the

diamond and avoid the hurdles that are fired.

• The robot learns by trying all the possible paths and then
choosing the path which gives him the reward with the
least hurdles.

• Each right step will give the robot a reward and each wrong
step will subtract the reward of the robot.

• The total reward will be calculated when it reaches the final

reward that is the diamond.
Applications in self-driving cars:
• Some of the autonomous driving tasks where
reinforcement learning could be applied include
trajectory optimization, motion planning, dynamic
pathing, controller optimization, and scenario-based
learning policies for highways.

• For example, parking can be achieved by learning

automatic parking policies.

• Lane changing can be achieved using Q-Learning while

overtaking can be implemented by learning an
overtaking policy while avoiding collision and
maintaining a steady speed thereafter.
• Reinforcement Learning applications in trading and
finance:

• Supervised time series models can be used for predicting

future sales as well as predicting stock prices.

• However, these models don’t determine the action to take

at a particular stock price.

• Enter Reinforcement Learning (RL). An RL agent can decide

on such a task; whether to hold, buy, or sell.

• The RL model is evaluated using market benchmark

standards in order to ensure that it’s performing optimally.
• Main points in Reinforcement learning –

• Input: The input should be an initial state from which the

model will start

• Output: There are many possible outputs as there are a variety

of solutions to a particular problem

• Training: The training is based upon the input, The model will
return a state and the user will decide to reward or punish the
model based on its output.

• The model keeps continues to learn.

• The best solution is decided based on the maximum reward.

 Applications of Machine Learning

• Email filtering
• Speech recognition,
• Face recognition
• Disease detection
• Fraud detection
• Computer vision,
• Self-driven cars
• Weather Forecasting
• NLP
• Amazon product recommendation, etc.
 Issues in Machine Learning
• Healthcare,
• Education,
• Finance,
• Automobile,
• Marketing, Shipping,
• Infrastructure,
• Automation, etc.
• Big companies like Amazon
• Facebook,
• Google
• Adobe, etc.

But everything in this world has bright as well as dark sides.

 Issues in Machine Learning

1. Inadequate Training Data

 Noisy Data- It is responsible for an inaccurate prediction that affects the
decision as well as accuracy in classification tasks.
 Incorrect data- It is also responsible for faulty programming and results
obtained in machine learning models. Hence, incorrect data may affect the
accuracy of the results also.

2. Poor/ Lack of quality of data

3. Overfitting and Underfitting

4. Irrelevant features

5. Lack of Skilled Resources

6. Inadequate Infrastructure
 BASIC TYPES OF DATA IN MACHINE LEARNING

• A dataset is a collection of related information or

records.

• The information may be on some entity or some

subject area.

• For example (Fig.2.2), we may have a data set on

students in which each record consists of information
about a specific student.

• Again, we can have a dataset on student performance

which has records providing performance.
• Each row of a data set is called a record.

• Each data set also has multiple attributes, each of which gives information on a
specific characteristic.

• For example, in the dataset on students, there are four attributes.

• Attributes can also be termed as feature, variable, dimension or field.

• Both the datasets, Student and Student Performance, are having four features or
dimensions; hence they are told to have four dimensional data space.
 Types of Data in ML

• Data can broadly be divided into following two

types:
1. Qualitative data
2. Quantitative data
 Qualitative data
• Qualitative data provides information about the quality of an object or
information which cannot be measured.

• For example, if we consider the quality of students in terms of

performance such as ‘Good’, ‘Average’, and ‘Poor’,
• It falls under the category of qualitative data.

• Also, name or roll number of students are information that cannot be

measured using some scale of measurement. So they would fall under
qualitative data.

• Qualitative data is also called categorical data.

• Qualitative data can be further subdivided into two types as follows:

1. Nominal data
2. Ordinal data
 Nominal data
• Nominal data is one which has no numeric value, but a named
value.

• It is used for assigning named values to attributes. Nominal

values cannot be quantified.

• Examples of nominal data are

1. Blood group: A, B, O, AB, etc.
2. Nationality: Indian, American, British, etc.
3. Gender: Male, Female, Other.

• A special case of nominal data is when only two labels are

possible, e.g. pass/fail as a result of an examination.

• This sub-type of nominal data is called ‘dichotomous’.

 Ordinal data

• Ordinal data assigns named values to attributes but unlike nominal

data, they can be arranged in a sequence of increasing or decreasing
value so that we can say whether a value is better than or greater than
another value.

• Examples of ordinal data are

1. Customer satisfaction: ‘Very Happy’, ‘Happy’, ‘Unhappy’, etc.
2. Grades: A, B, C, etc.
3. Hardness of Metal: ‘Very Hard’, ‘Hard’, ‘Soft’, etc.

• Like nominal data, basic counting is possible for ordinal data.

• Hence, the mode can be identified. Since ordering is possible in case of

ordinal data, median, and quartiles can be identified in addition.

• Mean can still not be calculated.

 Quantitative data
• Quantitative data relates to information about the
quantity of an object – hence it can be measured.

• For example, if we consider the attribute ‘marks’,

it can be measured using a scale of measurement.

• Quantitative data is also termed as numeric data.

• There are two types of quantitative data:

1. Interval data
2. Ratio data
 Interval data
• Interval data is numeric data for which not only the order is known, but the exact difference
between values is also known.

• An ideal example of interval data is Celsius temperature. The difference between each value
remains the same in Celsius temperature.

• For example, the difference between 12°C and 18°C degrees is measurable and is 6°C as in the
case of difference between 15.5°C and 21.5°C. Other examples include date, time, etc.

• For interval data, mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction are possible. For
that reason, for interval data, the central tendency can be measured by mean, median, or
• mode. Standard deviation can also be calculated.

• However, interval data do not have something called a ‘true zero’ value.
• For example, there is nothing called ‘0 temperature’ or ‘no temperature’. Hence, only addition
and subtraction applies for interval data. The ratio cannot be applied. This means, we can say
a temperature of 40°C is equal to the temperature of 20°C + temperature of 20°C.

• However, we cannot say the temperature of 40°C means it is twice as hot as in temperature of
20°C.
 Ratio data
• Ratio data represents numeric data for which exact
value can be measured.
• Absolute zero is available for ratio data.

• Also, these variables can be added, subtracted,

multiplied, or divided.

• The central tendency can be measured by mean,

median, or mode and methods of dispersion such as
standard deviation.

• Examples of ratio data include height, weight, age,

salary, etc.
• Apart from the approach detailed above, attributes can also be categorized into
types based on a number of values that can be assigned.
•
• The attributes can be either discrete or continuous based on this factor.

• Discrete attributes can assume a finite or countably infinite number of values.

Nominal attributes such as roll number, street number, pin code, etc. can have a
finite number of values whereas numeric attributes such as count, rank of
students, etc. can have countably infinite values.

• A special type of discrete attribute which can assume two values only is called
binary attribute. Examples of binary attribute include male/ female,
positive/negative, yes/no, etc.

• Continuous attributes can assume any possible value which is a real number.
Examples of continuous attribute include length, height, weight, price, etc.

• In general, nominal and ordinal attributes are discrete.

• On the other hand, interval and ratio attributes are continuous, barring a few
exceptions, e.g. ‘count’ attribute.