Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Data Visualization
Summary
1
Types of Data Sets
Record
Relational records
Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,
timeout
season
coach
game
score
team
ball
lost
pla
wi
crosstabs
n
y
Document data: text documents: term-
frequency vector
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
Transaction data
Graph and network Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0
Dimensionality
Curse of dimensionality
Sparsity
Only presence counts
Resolution
Patterns depend on the scale
Distribution
Centrality and dispersion
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Data Objects
Binary
Numeric: quantitative
Interval-scaled
Ratio-scaled
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Attribute Types
Nominal: categories, states, or names
Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
Binary
Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
e.g., gender
Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important
e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
Ordinal
Values have a meaningful order (ranking), but magnitude
between successive values is not known
Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
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Numeric Attribute Types
Quantity (integer or real-valued)
Interval
Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
Values have order
E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
No true zero-point
Ratio
Inherent zero-point
We can speak of values as being an order of
magnitude larger than the unit of measurement
(10 K˚ is twice as high as 5 K˚)
e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts,
monetary quantities
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Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
Discrete Attribute
Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values
collection of documents
Sometimes, represented as integer variables
attributes
Continuous Attribute
Has real numbers as attribute values
floating-point variables
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Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data
Data Visualization
Summary
9
Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
Motivation
To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation and spread
Data dispersion characteristics
median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals
Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities
of precision
Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
Dispersion analysis on computed measures
Folding measures into numerical dimensions
Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube
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Measuring the Central Tendency
Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n
x xi x
Note: n is sample size and N is population size n i 1 N
n
Weighted arithmetic mean:
w x
i i
Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values x i 1
n
Median: w i 1
i
Middle value if odd number of values, or average of the
middle two values otherwise
Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):
n / 2 ( freq )l
median L1 ( ) width
Mode freq median
Value that occurs most frequently in the data
Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal
Empirical formula:
mean mode 3 (mean median)
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Symmetric vs. Skewed Data
Median, mean and mode of symmetric, symmetric
positively and negatively skewed data
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Measuring the Dispersion of Data
Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)
Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1
Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max
Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers, and plot outliers individually
Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)
1 n 1 n 2 1 n 1 n
1 n
s
2
n 1 i 1
( xi x )
2
[ xi ( xi ) 2 ]
n 1 i 1 n i 1
2
N
i 1
( xi
2
)
N
xi 2
i 1
2
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Properties of Normal Distribution Curve
14
Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions
16
Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots
17
Quantile Plot
Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
Plots quantile information
For a data x data sorted in increasing order, f
i i
indicates that approximately 100 fi% of the data are
below or equal to the value xi
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Scatter plot
Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc
Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane
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Positively and Negatively Correlated Data
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Uncorrelated Data
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Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data
Data Visualization
Summary
23
Data Visualization
Why data visualization?
Gain insight into an information space by
mapping data onto graphical primitives
Provide qualitative overview of large data sets
Search for patterns, trends, structure,
irregularities, relationships among data
Help find interesting regions and suitable
parameters for further quantitative analysis
Provide a visual proof of computer
representations derived
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Visualization Methods
Categorization of visualization methods:
Pixel-oriented techniques
Icon-based techniques
Hierarchical techniques
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Pixel-Oriented Visualization Techniques
For a data set of m dimensions, create m windows on the screen, one
for each dimension
The m dimension values of a record are mapped to m pixels at the
corresponding positions in the windows
The colors of the pixels reflect the corresponding values
(a) Income (b) Credit Limit (c) transaction volume (d) age
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Laying Out Pixels in Circle Segments
To save space and show the connections among multiple dimensions,
space filling is often done in a circle segment
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Landscapes
Used by permission of B. Wright, Visible Decisions Inc.
news articles
visualized as
a landscape
• • •
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Visualizing Complex Data and Relations
Visualizing non-numerical data: text and social networks
Tag cloud: visualizing user-generated tags
The importance of
tag is represented
by font size/color
Besides text data,
there are also
methods to visualize
relationships, such as
visualizing social
networks
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Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data
Data Visualization
Summary
36
Similarity and Dissimilarity
Similarity
Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are
are
Lower when objects are more alike
37
Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
Data matrix
n data points with p x11 ... x1f ... x1p
dimensions ... ... ... ... ...
Two modes x ... xif ... xip
i1
... ... ... ... ...
x ... xnf ... xnp
n1
Dissimilarity matrix
n data points, but
0
d(2,1) 0
registers only the
d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0
distance
A triangular matrix : : :
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0
Single mode
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Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes
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Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j
A contingency table for binary data
Object i
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Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
zif sf
standardized measure (z-score):
Using mean absolute deviation is more robust than using standard
deviation
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Example:
Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
Data Matrix
x2 x4
point attribute1 attribute2
4 x1 1 2
x2 3 5
x3 2 0
x4 4 5
2 x1
Dissimilarity Matrix
(with Euclidean Distance)
x3
0 4 x1 x2 x3 x4
2
x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 5.1 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0
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Distance on Numeric Data: Minkowski Distance
Minkowski distance: A popular distance measure
where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two p-
dimensional data objects, and h is the order (the
distance so defined is also called L- h norm)
Properties
d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)
d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)
d(i, j) d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
A distance that satisfies these properties is a metric
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Special Cases of Minkowski Distance
h = 1: Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are
different between two binary vectors
d (i, j) | x x | | x x | ... | x x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp
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Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan (L1)
x1 1 2
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
x2 x4
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
4 x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0
2 x1
Supremum
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3 0
x3 x3 2 5 0
0 2 4 x4 3 1 5 0
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Ordinal Variables
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Attributes of Mixed Type
A database may contain all attribute types
Nominal, symmetric binary, asymmetric binary,
numeric, ordinal
One may use a weighted formula to combine their effects
pf 1 ij( f ) dij( f )
d (i, j)
pf 1 ij( f )
f is binary or nominal:
dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise
f is numeric: use the normalized distance
f is ordinal
Compute ranks rif and zif r 1
if
Treat zif as interval-scaled
M 1 f
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Cosine Similarity
A document can be represented by thousands of attributes, each
recording the frequency of a particular word (such as keywords) or
phrase in the document
d1 = (5, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0)
d2 = (3, 0, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1)
d1d2 = 5*3+0*0+3*2+0*0+2*1+0*1+0*1+2*1+0*0+0*1 = 25
||d1||= (5*5+0*0+3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)0.5=(42)0.5
= 6.481
||d2||= (3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+1*1+1*1+0*0+1*1+0*0+1*1)0.5=(17)0.5
= 4.12
cos(d1, d2 ) = 0.94
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Chapter 2: Getting to Know Your Data
Data Visualization
Summary
51
Summary
Data attribute types: nominal, binary, ordinal, interval-scaled, ratio-
scaled
Many types of data sets, e.g., numerical, text, graph, Web, image
Gain insight into the data by:
Basic statistical data description: central tendency, dispersion,
graphical displays
Data visualization: map data onto graphical primitives
Measure data similarity
Above steps are the beginning of data preprocessing
Many methods have been developed but still an active area of research
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References
W. Cleveland, Visualizing Data, Hobart Press, 1993
T. Dasu and T. Johnson. Exploratory Data Mining and Data Cleaning. John Wiley, 2003
U. Fayyad, G. Grinstein, and A. Wierse. Information Visualization in Data Mining and
Knowledge Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001
L. Kaufman and P. J. Rousseeuw. Finding Groups in Data: an Introduction to Cluster
Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
H. V. Jagadish, et al., Special Issue on Data Reduction Techniques. Bulletin of the Tech.
Committee on Data Eng., 20(4), Dec. 1997
D. A. Keim. Information visualization and visual data mining, IEEE trans. on Visualization
and Computer Graphics, 8(1), 2002
D. Pyle. Data Preparation for Data Mining. Morgan Kaufmann, 1999
S. Santini and R. Jain,” Similarity measures”, IEEE Trans. on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, 21(9), 1999
E. R. Tufte. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, 2nd ed., Graphics Press,
2001
C. Yu , et al., Visual data mining of multimedia data for social and behavioral studies,
Information Visualization, 8(1), 2009
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