Cont… UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

Introduction
 The Region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the cradle of
humankind.
 also a region where early civilizations including food production,
making tools and religion took place.
 These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic
formations, and socio-cultural and political settings.
 2.1. Human Evolution
• Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe
that had been formed through gradual natural process since about 4.
5 billion years before present (B. P.)
• The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P.
Cont…
• Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings
emerged at c. 800 million years B. P.
• Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million
years B. P.
• then some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into
Hominidae ( human ancestors).
 Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is a
cradle of humanity
• Evidences related to both biological and cultural evolution have been
discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys both
by Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
Cont…
 A fossil named:-
 Chororapithecus
• dated 10 million B. P.
• was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007.
 Ardipithicus ramiduskadabba
• dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP
• was discovered in Middle Awash.
 Ardipithicus ramidus
• dated 4. 2 million B.P.
• It was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
 other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie in middle
Awash (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.)
Cont…
 Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh)
• dated c. 3.18 million years B. P. with 40% complete body parts, weight
30kg, height 1.07 meters and
• pelvis looks like bipedal female
• It was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.
 Australopithecus anamensis
• It was discovered around Lake Turkana
 Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar language)
• dated to 2.5 million years B.P
• It was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
Cont…
 Genus Homo
 Its the next stage of human evolution as a result of developed human
brain
 believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P
 Homo habilis
• Its is derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis"
(skillful use of hands)
• dated 1.9 million years B. P.
• has been found in the Lower Omo.
 Homo erectus
• walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P. was discovered at Melka
Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size.
• originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world.
Cont…  Archaic Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human being)
• dated 400, 000 years B.P
• named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc
• discovered in Middle Awash.
 Homo sapiens sapiens
• (100, 000 years B.P.)
• discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower
Omo (in 1967).
• In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date
in the world for modern Homo sapiens.
• Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about
160, 000 years B.P.
Cont…
 Cultural evolution
 Its related to technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life.
 It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and
Iron Age.
 Stone tools, had been the first technologies to be developed by human
beings.
 By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools
can be grouped in to three
 Mode I Oldwan, which was named based on the first report made at
Olduvai Gorge, in Tanzania
• mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles
• produced by the direct percussion
Cont…
 Mode II Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France
• tools were produced by indirect percussion by using hand-ax or hammer
• mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
 Mode III
• tools are characterized by flexible and finest form of production by the
use of obsidian.
 Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia
and the Horn
• Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with
stone-tool-inflicted marks on them at Dikika in 2010.
• its the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world
• Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near
Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.
Cont…• Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million years
B.P invented fire and started burial practice.
• Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle
Awash in 1963.
• Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000
years B.P.
• Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to
200, 000 B. P.
 Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and
Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy
information about Stone Age communities.
Cont…
 The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods
 Paleolithic
• Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.
• the period when human being developed language with shelter in cave
• using stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and
clothing.
• There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of
fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora.
 Mesolithic
• Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.
• It was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic
Cont…
 2.2. Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P)
 human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
 it involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication
of plants and animals.
 The process of domestication took place independently in the various
parts of the world.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts,
people cultivated plants including; Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa
(Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete
ventricosum) etc.
• The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting
cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil
exhaustion.
Cont… The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures
and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well
as Aqordat and Barentu in Eritrea evinces the existence of Neolithic material
culture.
 The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools.
 Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have
been excavated from Lalibela Cave
 Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings
of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near
Charchar.
 Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near
Matahara.
 Playa Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West
Africa were among known places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa
and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle that in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the
Cont…
 2.3. The Peopling of the Region
 2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic
diversity.
 There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the
Horn.
 Beneath this apparent diversity, there is some degree of unity.
 Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major
language super families.
 A. Afro-Asiatic:
 this super family is sub-divided into the following families:
Cont…
 Cushitic: divided into four branches:
• Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea
bordering the Sudan
• Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
• Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale,
Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba,
Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali,
Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
• Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
 Semitic: is divided into two:
• North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);
Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland
Eritrea and Tigray).
Cont…
• South: is further divided into two
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
 Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil,
Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete,
Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse
etc. Among its groups, Ometo includes Wolayta and Gamo while main
Gonga is Keficho.
 B. Nilo-Saharan
• Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama,
Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo,
Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
Cont…  2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 Its the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of
long historical processes in northeast Africa.
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse.
 Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands
 Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations,
studies indicate that environmental, socio-economic, and political
processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of
peoples in the region.
 Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the
area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from
where they dispersed to different directions.
Cont…
 the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and
the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
 The Semites are the second majority people next to the Cushites. spread
over large area and eventually settled the northern, north central,
northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao
in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern
Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.
 Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.
 In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese
border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern
Omo.
 The latter are identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake
along Ethio-Kenyan border.
Cont…
 2.3.3. Economic Formations
 The domestication of plants and animals are two forms of livelihood
have coexisted and quite often interrelated in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced
economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern
lowland region since early periods.
 Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle
has been the most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho
and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana Oromo.
 While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the
Somali have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba)
Rivers.
Cont…
 The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years
supporting sizable populations.
 Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming.
 It is here that sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at
least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic
groups.
 The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming
and trade in northern Omo
 while southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism and
fishing.
 Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy,
weaving and other crafts.
Cont…
 In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant
economic formations were; pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing,
apiculture and hunting.
 For instance, sorghum, millet, cotton and others have been largely
cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese border since
antiquity.
 The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been
shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food.
 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and
social values
 Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with
northern Sudan.
Cont…
 2.4. Religion and religious process
 2.4.1.Indigenous Religion
 Waqeffanna of the Oromo
• based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.
• Waqa's power is manifested through thespirits called Ayana
• The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete
(women or human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity
spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals defender), Gijare/
Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (anti-disease
spirit) etc.
• There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a ghost called
Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode before death, or his/her
Cont… • In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-
flowing river and top of mountain respectively, there is thanks giving
festival called Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite.
• Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have
maintained link between the Ayyana and the believers.
• Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hilltop or in the grove of
large trees
• On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which
Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret
mysteries.
• The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage to
get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or anointment father)
until about 1900.
Cont…• Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top, red at center
and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (luba) and
those in post-active life respectively.
 Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa, who is believed to exist
before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho) and
whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon).
• Spirits like Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula,
Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and
Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho.
• One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send
rain in drought.
• Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by
either spiritual leaders, Itto and Albaja from Bimado clan, or Boyamo,
father of five Hadiya clans, and was largely followed by inhabitants of
Cont…
 Kambata
• Have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials
known as Magnancho.
 Gedeo
• called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony
called Deraro.
 The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
 Among Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (supreme deity), Bozha
(thunder God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess).
 The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as Abba at Enar
(Henar)
Cont…  The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
• So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in
charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity).
• Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village
called Magos
 The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
 The Wolayta called God Tosa
• spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna
(justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep
spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit),
Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo spirit) etc.
• Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya.
Cont…
• Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta
usually at the end of May and beginning of June to offer sacrifice of
the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha).
• People gathered around tree called Dongowa, which varied from clan
to clan: sycamore (Ficussur exasperate) for the Bubula, podocarpo for
Zatuwa etc. The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre).
• To protect people from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan
used Diqaysa practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica
trees.
• The Wolayta also had the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to
work) to protect produce from disaster.
• They also chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or
Baqa Potilliya (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday fate.
Cont…
• If they made error in respecting this custom, they would anoint their
bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance.
• Religious practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza
Keta (ritual house).
 Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero
• A spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-
nayo.
• Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-
nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti),
with residence at Adio.
• Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo
• Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro
respectively.
Cont… • There are also local spirits like damochechi of Channa, yaferochi of
Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill identified
by Yetecho clan as landowner.
• Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.
 The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa,
which created everything and presides over the universe.
• The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of
drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the community and
their surrounding environment.
• Among various prayer rituals, the first is Gure Shuka for preservation of
their locality through slaughtering animals by calling the name of God
being at the tip of the mountains.
• The second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when unexpected
disease happens.
Cont…
• The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow without
disease and to prevent children from evil spirits attack; for
rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious way of life and
productivities in the family.
• The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are
trusted to reach God among the three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa
 The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the
coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is
necklace of God.
• Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign of
God.
• There are also spirits associated with clan spears names such as WiW
(spirit of war) associated with thunder.
Cont…• The Nuer believe that when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth
while breath or life goes back to Kuoth and soul that signifies human
personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs
together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
 An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and
beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of
mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
 2.4.2. Judaism
 Its an expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God)
established with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew).
 It has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since early
times.
 It began in the 4th century AD, when the Bete-Israel (literally, house of
Israel), one of the ancient peoples in the region, refused to be converted
Cont…
 The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are
generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic
Judaism).
 Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem
from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to
Ethiopia,
• it led by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-
1200 B.C.).
 Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split
of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah
after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
 Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of
Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932
B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and
Cont… Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by
Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
 Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with
the Agaws.
 Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from
mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium.
 The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and
northwestern Ethiopia.
Cont…  2.4.3. Christianity
 It became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana
( 320-360)
 He dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war
god), Arwe (serpent-python god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth
god), and embraced Christianity.
 Instrumental in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius
and Frementius (Fremnatos).
 When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited
Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328- 373) appointed him as the first
Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
 Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until
1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.
Cont…
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later
part of fifth century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the
Nine Saints shown in the table below:
Table I: The Nine Saints
Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church
Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Mika’el) Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of Aksum)
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum)
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of Aksum)

Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera

Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
Cont…
 The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez
 Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-
1270)
 chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period
(1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were constructed.
 These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of
Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-
Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo
and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but
served through the ages as repositories of ancient manuscripts and
precious objects of art.
 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries, Jesuits tried to
convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
Cont…
 this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
 However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies
within EOC that is discussed in subsequent units.
 As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant
themes of treaties concluded between European diplomats and
Ethiopian authorities.
 The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De
Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and
Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary
Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led
Protestant missionaries:
Cont… • their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf
 Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win
confidence of local people.
 They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
 They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc
and used them in new versions as equivalent to God.
 Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.
• These schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers.
 They also provided medical facilities.
Cont…  2.4.4. Islam
 When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610
AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
 Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early followers
including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the
Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum.
 The first group of refuges was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
 In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia,
• "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness,
where God will give relief from what you are suffering.“
• The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed
al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.
Cont…  Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the
king did not comply.
• He replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not
give up these people who have taken refuge with me.”
 Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad,
but through peaceful ways including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea
by the beginning of eighth century.
• In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate.
• In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast.
• It was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the
predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely through
the agency of preachers and merchants.
Cont…  Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak route played a minor role in
introduction of Islam into the interior as Christianity was strongly
entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states of northern
Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited.
 Thus, the port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an
important gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly in to the present
day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and
ninth centuries.
• From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through
the role of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders.
• In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim
saint of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of
Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
Cont… • Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar shrine.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D.
through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
• Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minaret c.1269.
 Islam was further expanded by mystical orders (turuq, singular tariqa).
 Among these:-
 the Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani,
1077-1166) emphasized collective devotion (hadra).
 Ahmadiyya, which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez
in Morocco (1760-1837) stressed austerity, turban and veil.
• It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named after Abu l-Abbas Ahmad b.
Muhammad b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani, 1737- 1815) and
• Summaniyya (named after Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni,
Cont…  The sheiks of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region.
 The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the
depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.

THE END OF CHAPTER TWO