Data Communication & Networking

Summary

Department of Computer Science

School of Computing and Informatics
College of Engineering and Technology, Dilla University, Dilla.
 Course Objectives:
 Understand the principles behind the Networking
and Internet protocols,
 Understand the limitations of the current
Internet and its service model,
 Understand the main ideas behind some of the
current innovations in networking including, p2p
protocols, wireless access systems,
 Identify and assess possible research
opportunities and difficulties within the course
scope.
2
 Course outline
 The OSI Network Reference model:
 Layers in OSI: Physical Layer, Data Link Layer,
Network Layer, Transport Layer, Session Layer,
Presentation Layer, Application Layer
 TCP/IP Model and their Differences with OSI
 Layers in the TCP/IP Model: Link Layer, Internet
Layer, Transport Layer, Application Layer, OSI
and TCP/IP layering differences

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 1-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

1.4
 Figure 1.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

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 1-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

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OSI Model

Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) Model
International standard organization (ISO)
established a committee in 1977 to develop an
architecture for computer communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model is the result of this effort.
In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications
architecture.
Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any
two systems which conform to the reference
model and associated standards.
OSI Model

OSI Reference Model

The OSI model is now considered the primary
Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data
makes its way from application programmes (such
as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such
as wire) to another application programme located
on another network.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of
moving information between computers over a
network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problems .
This separation into smaller more manageable
functions is known as layering.
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

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OSI Model

OSI: A Layered Network Model

The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of
networking into layers reduces complexity.
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers.
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and
physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow
of data from end to end through the network.
The upper four layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated
more toward services to the applications.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before network
transit.
 Figure 1.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

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 Figure 1.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

1.12
 Figure 1.4 An exchange using the OSI model

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 1-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

1.14
 Figure 1.5 Physical layer

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 Physical Layer Responsibilities

 Physical characteristics of interfaces and

media
 Representation of bits without
interpretation
 Data rate: number of bits per second
 Synchronization of bits

1.16
OSI Model

Physical Layer
Provides physical interface for transmission of
information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from one

system to another on a physical communication
medium.
Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and
procedural - aspects for physical communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of
voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum
transmission distances, physical connectors, and
other similar attributes are defined by physical
layer specifications.
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Figure 1.6 Data link layer

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 Data Link Layer Responsibilities
 Defines frames into manageable data
units
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control

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OSI Model

Data Link Layer

Data link layer attempts to provide reliable
communication over the physical layer interface.

Breaks the outgoing data into frames and

reassemble the received frames.
Create and detect frame boundaries.
Handle errors by implementing an
acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
Implement flow control.
Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast
communication.
Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
communication.
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Figure 1.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

1.23
 Figure 1.8 Network layer

1.24
 Network Layer Responsibilities
 If the two systems are attached to different
networks with connecting devices between
the networks, there is often a need for the
network layer
 Source-to-destination delivery, possibly across
multiple networks
 Logical addressing
 Routing

1.25
OSI Model

Network Layer
Implements routing of frames (packets) through
the network.

Defines the most optimum path the packet should

take from the source to the destination
Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can
be identified.
Handles congestion in the network.
Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous
networks (Internetworking).
The network layer also defines how to fragment a
packet into smaller packets to accommodate
different media.
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

1.27
 Figure 1.9 Source-to-destination delivery

1.28
 Figure 1.10 Transport layer

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 Transport Layer Responsibilities
 Process-to-process delivery of entire
message
 Port addressing
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection control: connectionless or
connection-oriented
 End-to-end flow control
 End-to-end error control
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OSI Model

Transport Layer
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable
mechanism for the exchange of data between two
processes in different computers.

Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.

Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data
units.
Provides connectionless or connection oriented
service.
Provides for the connection management.
Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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 Figure 1.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

1.33
 Example 1
Figure 1.14 shows an example of transport layer
communication. Data coming from the upper layers
have port addresses j and k (j is the address of the
sending process, and k is the address of the receiving
process). Since the data size is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data are split into two packets,
each packet retaining the port addresses (j and k). Then
in the network layer, network addresses (A and P) are
added to each packet.

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Figure 2.14 Example 3

1.35
Figure 1.12 Session layer

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 Session Layer Responsibilities
 Dialog Control
 Session
 Synchronization

1.37
OSI Model

Session Layer
Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the
dialogue between the two end systems. It defines
how to start, control and end conversations (called
sessions) between applications.
This layer requests for a logical connection to be
established on an end-user’s request.
Any necessary log-on or password validation is also
handled by this layer.
Session layer is also responsible for terminating the
connection.
This layer provides services like dialogue discipline
which can be full duplex or half duplex.
Session layer can also provide check-pointing
mechanism such that if a failure of some sort occurs
between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

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 Figure 1.13 Presentation layer

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 Presentation Layer Responsibilities

 Compression
 Encryption
 Translation

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OSI Model

Presentation Layer
Presentation layer defines the format in which the
data is to be exchanged between the two
communicating entities.
Also handles data compression and data
encryption (cryptography).
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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 Figure 1.14 Application layer

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 Application Layer
Responsibilities
 Enables user access to the network
 User interfaces and support for services
such as
 E-Mail
 File transfer and access
 Remote log-in
 WWW

1.45
OSI Model

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with application
programs and is the highest level of OSI model.
Application layer contains management functions
to support distributed applications.
Examples of application layer are applications
such as file transfer, electronic mail, remote login
etc.
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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 Figure 1.15 Summary of layers

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 1-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers(Network Access)
Network Layer (Internetwork)
Transport Layer
Application Layer
1.49
 Figure 1.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

1.50
 1-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

1.51
 Figure 1.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

1.52
 Figure 1.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

1.53
 Example 1.1

In Figure 1.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.

1.54
 Figure 1.19 Physical addresses

1.55
 Example 1.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

1.56
 Example 1.3

Figure 1.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

1.57
 Figure 1.20 IP addresses

1.58
 Example 1.4

Figure 1.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

1.59
 Figure 1.21 Port addresses

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 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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 Example 1.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

1.62
 Reference Books
 Andrew S. Tannenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall, 4th
edition, 2003
 B. A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, McGraw
Hill, 3rd edition, 2003.
 W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, Prentice Hall,
7th edition, 2004.
 W. Stallings, High-Speed Networks and Internets: Performance
and Quality of Service, Prentice Hall, 2nd edition, 2002.
 F. Halsall, Data Communications, Computer Networks and Open
Systems, Addison-Wesley, 4th edition, 1996.
 G. Held, Data over Wireless Networks, Bluetooth, WAP and
Wireless LANs, McGraw Hill, 2000.

2.63
 Continue..
 S. Hagen, IPv6 Essentials, OReilly, 2002.
 H. Soliman, Mobile IPv6 - Mobility in a wireless
Internet, Addison-Wesley, 2004.
 C. Perkins, RTP: Audio and Video for the Internet,
Addison-Wesley Professional, 2003
 O. Hersent, J. P. Petit, D. Gurle, IP Telephony:
Deploying Voice-over-IP Protocols, John Wiley &
Sons, 2005.
 J. Davidson, Peters, B. Gracely, Voice over IP
Fundamentals, Cisco Press, 2000.
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